Governing Bodies Of Sport Research Articles

Examining the Financial Condition of Sport Governing Bodies: The Effects of Revenue Diversification and Organizational Success Factors

Sport governing bodies play a critical role in the sport system. The purpose of this study is to analyze their financial condition, a topic that has been largely neglected in previous research. Based on financial portfolio theory, it was suggested that the level of revenue diversification has a positive effect on their financial condition (measured through total revenues, break even, profit, and investments). Also, the influence of sport-related and financial success factors was examined using data from a nationwide online survey of sport governing bodies in Germany (n = 1,080). The results provided evidence of a relatively high level of revenue diversification compared with other industries. Revenue diversification, hosting major sporting events, and cost optimization had a positive effect on the financial condition, while increasing memberships in clubs and organizing competitions had a negative influence. The findings have implications for the management of sport governing bodies.

A Mare's Nest? The Jockey Club and Judicial Review of Sports Governing Bodies

AbstractIn this article Jonathan Morgan reveals how the tradition of self-regulation in British sport has raised difficult questions for lawyers. On what basis can the decisions of governing bodies – which are clearly not organs of the state – be challenged? The Jockey Club was a regular subject of legal challenges from the mid 20th Century. An analysis of those cases illuminates the wider debate concerning the basis and extent of judicial review in English law.

Combinations of key determinants of performance in sport governing bodies

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to focus on possible combinations of the key determinants of high performance in sport governing bodies (SGBs) which go well beyond the net effects of independent variables.Design/methodology/approachThe research focused on 18 sport governing bodies from the French‐speaking community of Belgium (CSGBs). Their strategic goals are emphasized and their potential determinants of performance are measured and assessed. Due to the small n‐sample and the causal complexity inherent in this research, a crisp‐set qualitative comparative analysis (csQCA) was performed.FindingsThree generic combinations of the key determinants linked with high performance were highlighted. The first was high‐performing CSGBs that provide innovative activities for their membership and are proactive in elite sport services. The second was other high‐performing CSGBs of large size that involve paid staff in decision‐making processes and also develop innovative activities. The third was small‐sized governing bodies which, although they do not have extensive resources, could perform highly when they relied on volunteer leaders and delegates activities they were not able to deliver.Research limitations/implicationsDue to country and sport specificities, these results may not be generalized to all SGBs. Nevertheless, it is possible to argue that when trying to understand the performance of such complex nonprofit sport organizations, researchers and practitioners need to take into account combinations of factors, rather than independent performance variables.Originality/valueUsing an innovative mixed method design dealing with causal complexity – qualitative comparative analysis – the paper highlights combinations of factors observed in high performing SGBs.

A leadership styles competency framework for governing bodies in sport

National Governing Bodies in Sport in the United Kingdom increasingly implement the Regional Development Managers Scheme in the quest to promote effective leadership within their organisations. Regional Development Managers need professional leadership development. However, much of what has been done in this regard falls drastically short. Leadership development has been too vague, outdated and theoretical. It has rarely been tied to an organisation’s immediate needs, nor has it adequately prepared leaders for the challenges of the future. An approach to leadership development programmes that combines theoretical concepts with opportunities to apply observable behaviours is required. The 21st century demands a new kind of leader with relevant skills. Action learning is effective in developing leaders because it is adaptable and flexible. In this investigation, 58 Regional Development Officers were asked to rate the leadership styles of Regional Development Managers on the Leadership Style Inventory (LSI). In turn, 18 Regional Development Managers were asked to report on the same questionnaire their own leadership styles. According to Regional Development Officers, the two leadership styles mostly displayed by Regional Development Managers (according to behavioural rating) are the coaching and democratic styles. Regional Development Managers deemed the affiliative and democratic styles to be the mostly used. The findings of this study, together with relevant literature, are used to propose a Leadership Styles Competency Framework for Governing Bodies in Sport.

Longevity of rAAV vector and plasmid DNA in blood after intramuscular injection in nonhuman primates: implications for gene doping

Legitimate uses of gene transfer technology can benefit from sensitive detection methods to determine vector biodistribution in pre-clinical studies and in human clinical trials, and similar methods can detect illegitimate gene transfer to provide sports-governing bodies with the ability to maintain fairness. Real-time PCR assays were developed to detect a performance-enhancing transgene (erythropoietin, EPO) and backbone sequences in the presence of endogenous cellular sequences. In addition to developing real-time PCR assays, the steps involved in DNA extraction, storage and transport were investigated. By real-time PCR, the vector transgene is distinguishable from the genomic DNA sequence because of the absence of introns, and the vector backbone can be identified by heterologous gene expression control elements. After performance of the assays was optimized, cynomolgus macaques received a single dose by intramuscular (IM) injection of plasmid DNA, a recombinant adeno-associated viral vector serotype 1 (rAAV1) or a rAAV8 vector expressing cynomolgus macaque EPO. Macaques received a high plasmid dose intended to achieve a significant, but not life-threatening, increase in hematocrit. rAAV vectors were used at low doses to achieve a small increase in hematocrit and to determine the limit of sensitivity for detecting rAAV sequences by single-step PCR. DNA extracted from white blood cells (WBCs) was tested to determine whether WBCs can be collaterally transfected by plasmid or transduced by rAAV vectors in this context, and can be used as a surrogate marker for gene doping. We demonstrate that IM injection of a conventional plasmid and rAAV vectors results in the presence of DNA that can be detected at high levels in blood before rapid elimination, and that rAAV genomes can persist for several months in WBCs.

Teaching Games for Understanding: the difficulties and challenges experienced by participation cricket coaches

Background: Recent changes in the structure and delivery of formalised coach education courses such as the United Kingdom Coaching Framework (UKCF) and the United Kingdom Coaching Certificate (UKCC) has manifested in an increased importance on sports coaches adopting holistic and player-centred coaching pedagogy. For one National Governing Body of sport (NGB) this has prompted a change in the content and delivery of its formal coach education programme to include modules that contain approaches such as Teaching Games for Understanding which reflect constructivist learning theories. Purpose: Using constructivist learning theory and Windschitl's four dimensional model of constructivist dilemmas in practice from 2002 (conceptual dilemmas, pedagogical dilemmas, cultural dilemmas, and political dilemmas) this study examines the challenges and difficulties experienced by a number of participation sports coaches as they implemented Teaching Games for Understanding principles into an annual training programme (UKCC). Participants: Five UKCC 2 qualified cricket coaches currently coaching youth cricketers volunteered to take part in the study. Participants were purposely sampled through the author's own role as a coach education tutor. Intervention: The principle criterion of the pedagogical intervention was that the coaches embedded TGfU principles into their annual coaching programme. Research design: In order to capture the real life contexts of the participants and qualitative nature of inquiry a case study approach was adopted. Data collection: A total of 20 semi-structured interviews were conducted during a twelve-month training period. All the coaches were interviewed individually on four separate occasions. In addition 110 coaching evaluation forms were submitted for document analysis purposes. Data analysis: Interview transcripts and qualitative written comments recorded on the coaching evaluation forms were analysed separately using the constant comparative method of analysing data. Findings: The pedagogic dilemmas associated with TGfU pedagogy included the use of a questioning strategy, insufficient pedagogic content knowledge, and gaining access to appropriate support material. The conceptual dilemmas included maintaining a ‘true’ constructivist focus. The cultural dilemmas faced by the coaches included tensions within the coach-player relationship. Finally, the political dilemmas suggested the NGB could provide more guidance on the use of TGfU and in particular regular professional development opportunities. Although generally satisfied with the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) UKCC 2 the coaches were in retrospect disappointed with the practical examples of the TGfU modules and were concerned that TGfU was not a shared philosophy amongst the core coach education tutor team. Conclusions: The adoption of constructivist Teaching Games for Understanding principles can be a complex process for many coaches, and NGBs should consider strategies to avoid over simplifying a challenging and demanding approach to coaching and teaching. It is argued that coach education courses and NGBs need to provide support in the form of additional resources as well as continued professional development.

‘Grow and Sustain’: the role of community sports provision in promoting a participation legacy for the 2012 Olympic Games

The introduction of the Sport England strategy in 2008, with the ambition to develop a ‘world leading community sports system’, offered the opportunity to truly engage grassroots sport delivery with the process of reversing the decline in active sports participation. Unfortunately this opportunity appears to have been missed, with the return to a top down imposition of a ‘sport for sport's sake’ agenda using unprepared and under resourced National Governing Bodies of Sport (NGBs) as the agents of management and delivery, a model that has generally not proven to be successful in the past. It would appear, therefore, time to rethink community sports provision and to find alternative methods of delivery to realize the government's ambitious targets relating to 2012 London Olympics legacy. To add to the debate, this article provides a consideration of the provision and delivery of sporting opportunities in the context of a grassroots organization at community level. It discusses whether sports organizations that are controlled and organized locally facilitate and enable individuals to participate and whether they sustain sport and physical activity programmes on behalf of their residents. To adopt this approach would involve utilizing and enhancing the skills of local people in order to sustain and progress the opportunities offered by recruiting coaches, managers and administrators from the local residents. With this structure in place, it would enable all members of the community to volunteer, organize and meaningfully participate in, and contribute to, an innovation designed to promote healthy lifestyles.

The Science of Sex Verification and Athletic Performance

The division of athletes into male and female categories for competition is a widely accepted practice and is ordinarily straightforward, requiring no intervention from authorities. However, for reasons ranging from deliberate cheating to complex medical conditions resulting in ambiguous development of sex organs, the controversy of sex verification in athletic events has existed for 70 years. Testing procedures, initially implemented to prevent cheating by men masquerading as women, have produced humiliating outcomes for women athletes who were often for the first time confronted with the possibility that they have one of the disorders of sex development. Sporting authorities have and continue to formulate position stands for the management of such cases. An important missing component in this debate is the sound scientific evidence to determine (a) whether a performance advantage actually exists and (b) how large it might be. The division of competition into separate categories and the large difference in sporting performance between male and female necessitate that sport-governing bodies define the boundaries between the sexes in a just and fair manner for all participating athletes. This review will therefore provide the historical context of the debate and aim to discuss relevant physiological and performance aspects of the sex verification process.

How Should National Governing Bodies of Sport Be Governed in the UK? An Exploratory Study of Board Structure

ABSTRACTManuscript Type: EmpiricalResearch Question/Issue: This study explores the most appropriate board structure for national governing bodies (NGBs) of sport in the UK. Sports are a very important aspect of UK society, involving a significant number of participants and spectators, occupying a key role in furthering the nation's health, and, at the elite level, a source of considerable national pride. From a governance perspective, NGBs of sport are non‐profit organizations, managing both professional and amateur sports, and administering the allocation of considerable amounts of funds, especially public funds. The study was motivated by a renewed interest, not least from government, in ensuring NGBs had an appropriate structure to ensure optimal decision‐making for their stakeholders.Research Findings/Insights: We interviewed 22 senior administrators involved in sports in the UK. Our interviews sought to ascertain their views on the appropriateness of applying a number of key board reforms, currently seen as good practice, to NGBs of sport. The overall consensus is as follows: (1) NGBs should reform the composition of their boards to better reflect business demands; (2) board size should be in the range of five to 12 members; (3) NGBs should have different individuals occupying the positions of CEO and chairman; and (4) boards of NGBs should possess more non‐executive directors.Theoretical/Academic Implications: This research adds to our understanding of governance in non‐profit organizations generally and NGBs of sport in particular. Ascertaining the views of key administrators and advisors in sport provides a novel contribution to the governance in sport literature. Our findings allow us to develop a number of propositions capable of being examined further in subsequent research.Practitioner/Policy Implications: The results of this study feed into an important on‐going debate regarding the appropriate governance structure of sport NGBs in the UK. A key finding is that boards in NGBs should move away from being only representative, but should also include members with specific business expertise as well as a greater element of non‐executive monitoring.

Innovation in sports coaching: the implementation of reflective cards

Despite the well‐supported concept that reflective learning leads to the nurturing of personal and professional development within sports coaching, the process is often overlooked by coaching practitioners due to the all too familiar barrier of time. As such, this paper is in line with recent calls to bridge the gap between ‘in’ and ‘after’ action reflections‐on‐practice. Specifically, the paper investigates the utility of reflective cards (r‐cards), based upon the perceptions of three equine sports coaches. Qualitative methods were employed through an action‐reflection inquiry process, involving the management of change whilst participants reflected in‐action over a six‐week period. Participants engaged in two reflective conversations via focus groups, where discussions included the use of the r‐cards (in‐action) and the r‐learning record sheets (on‐action). A procedure of both inductive and deductive content analysis elicited five emergent themes: the practicality of r‐cards; conscious awareness of the reflective process; development of craft knowledge; potential for coach development; commonality of reflective competencies. Results indicated that the r‐cards are a fast and focused way to reflect‐in‐action, allowing decisions to be brought into consciousness, thereby empowering coaches to take ownership of their practice whilst endorsing the need for coaches to be disciplined in their noticing. Consequently, National Governing Bodies of Sport (NGBs) and coach educators must be aware of the potential of using such methods to engage coaches in reflective learning in order to build upon and improve current coaching practice.

Temporal Strength Changes From Resistance Exercise and Albuterol on Unloaded Muscle

To assess unloaded knee extensor temporal strength changes, healthy subjects without asthma performed 40 continuous days of unilateral limb suspension, whereby their left leg refrained from normal weight-bearing and ambulatory activity. During the 40-day period, subjects performed resistance exercise (REX) with their unloaded leg on an inertial resistance ergometer and, as part of a double-blind design, consumed the maximal oral therapeutic dosage of albuterol (i.e., 16 mg.d) or a placebo (i.e., lactose) with no crossover. Workout data were partitioned into 4 10-day periods that ran consecutively. Dependent strength variables included concentric total work, eccentric total work, concentric average power (CAP), and eccentric average power (EAP). Dependent variables were analyzed with 5 (time) x 2 (group) x 2 (gender) mixed factorial analyses of variance and the Tukey honestly significant difference test. Concentric total work, CAP, and EAP each demonstrated a time-group-gender (p < 0.05) interaction. Female REX-placebo subjects had the greatest percentage of unloaded knee extensor strength loss. However, female REX-albuterol subjects fared best throughout the 40-day period and incurred significant unloaded knee extensor strength gains. Differences in strength changes between male and female REX-albuterol subjects was likely due to the higher relative dosage administered to the latter, as body mass showed a gender (i.e., men > women) effect. Future research may elucidate the ideal dose-response relationship for REX-albuterol treatment for use aboard manned space flights and in other disuse models. Coaches and practitioners should carefully examine their sport-governing bodies' rules on albuterol administration and give the drug only if an athlete's health warrants such treatment.

Czech Sport Governing Bodies and Social Capital

The main objective of the study is to explore the mechanisms influencing the nature of civic engagement in sport federations with a particular interest in barriers undermining their functioning. The article is based on the multi-sited ethnographic study in three sport governing bodies in the Czech Republic (handball, football and sailing) and uses a combination of techniques such as participant and non-participant observation, semi-structured interviews and secondary analysis of available documents. The main barriers identified are seen as a product of encounters between local and national levels of sport governing bodies. The concept of social capital with its structural, relational and cognitive dimensions is presented as a tool to grasp the phenomena under study.

EU-Centric Governance in Sport? The Slovenian Experience with the White Paper Process

A synthesis of existing academic, expert and everyday practical political literature demonstrates that we can trace many different approaches to the phenomena of governance. Based on the political sciences, particularly policy literature, the governance concept is most frequently connected with an analysis of the relations between actors or institutions of the state and society at different political levels. Use of the governance concept is also becoming increasingly popular when discussing sports issues, especially when the multi-level or global sport perspective is in question. This article aims to confront the national perspectives and understandings of, as well as attempts at, sports governance, in relation to multi-level ones. This refers specifically the EU, because over the last few years, not only have states expanded their traditional concerns with health and social security to encompass leisure and cultural life, including sport, but the EU has also implemented different activities concerning sport issues. This particularly emphasises the extent and importance of the relations that key national policy actors have established with themselves and especially towards supra-national (EU) actors in the processes of creating common EU sports policy directions as part of preparing the White Paper on Sport (2007). It does this by analysing the available official documents, records and statistics relating to the issue, as well as interviews conducted in spring 2007 with representatives of the state and sports-governing bodies in Slovenia. The conclusions of the analysis indicate a predominantly EU-centric type of multi-level governance approach and make some observations about the EU’s future development and how this could impact the development of (sub)national sports policy.

Independence and Accountability

The UK National Anti-Doping Organisation (NADO), the Drug Free Sport Directorate (DFSD), is located within the same organization, UK Sport, which is responsible for maximizing elite sport success. This article evaluates the demand for an independent NADO, which comes not only from within the UK but also from international anti-doping agencies. The concept of independence is examined within the context of broader concerns with accountability and the relationship between the NADO and its stakeholders. Using data from a survey of both National Governing Bodies of sport (NGBs) and elite athletes and interviews with major policy actors it is argued that the concern of elite athletes and NGBs is less with the location of the NADO within UK Sport, but with questions of accountability and communication. It is argued that enhanced independence would, in itself, be no guarantee of either neutrality or of greater effectiveness and may well be counter productive. Moreover, using Hood's rationale for administrative reform there is little evidence that a more independent NADO would be more efficient, equitable or robust. However, it is also argued that the current network of accountability relationships is focused on secondary stakeholders and those primary stakeholders, such as elite athletes and their NGBs, are marginal thus risking an erosion of the current high level of trust.

A Framework for Understanding the Performance of National Governing Bodies of Sport

Although much research exists on the performance of organizations little literature exists that allows understanding of the performance of national governing bodies (NGBs) of sport. The research in this paper aims to facilitate this understanding and presents the results of a programme of research carried out with French NGBs. In the main phase of the research, utilizing an adaptation of Lawrence and Lorsch's theoretical framework, case study research was carried out with 11 French NGBs in order to understand their strategy and management practices in relation to their organizational performance. Analysis of these case studies, alongside previous research that has focused on the relationship between strategy/organizational structure and performance, leads to the proposal of a framework through which to explain NGB performance in the field of sport. This framework seeks to accommodate the relationship between strategy, management and operational performance.

Scratching the Back of “Mr X”: Analyzing Gendered Social Processes in Sport Organizations

The purpose of this research was to analyze social processes as an integral part of gender relations. A theoretical framework was developed using a three-part conceptualization of social processes. Data were collected during semistructured interviews with 35 individuals in three National Governing Bodies of sport in the UK and during unstructured interviews and observation in meetings and sport events attended by the participants. The data were coded and analyzed, and three gendered social processes were examined: informal networking, dress codes, and the use of humor. In the conclusion section, future directions are offered addressing the implications of this research for sport management practitioners, educators, and researchers.

An Accident of History: Why the Decisions of Sports Governing Bodies are Not Amenable to Judicial Review

The English courts have held that the boundaries of public law should not extend to include judicial review of the competency of sports bodies. The justification for the continuing treatment of the administrative authority of sports bodies as being domestic in nature is that the required level of governmental involvement and/or linkage to a scheme of statutory regulation cannot be identified. Given the contractual relationship between the parties involved, the English courts have long preferred to decide sporting disputes on a private law basis upon which effective actions for a declaration, an injunction or damages can be based without resort to judicial review. The apparent firmness of the English courts on this point is at odds with a number of other comparable jurisdictions. Moreover, and in line with recent developments in the general area of public law, consideration is given as to whether the decisions of sports bodies might be exposed to judicial review on the basis that it is sufficiently within the ‘public interest’ that they are held accountable in this fashion. This argument is predicated on a court being convinced that certain sports bodies are necessarily governmental in operation because: they have power over a not unsubstantial area of economic activity, they have private power that affects the livelihoods of many individuals, and they receive significant levels of public funding. In conclusion, the practical implications of a finding that sports bodies are hybrid public authorities pursuant to section 6 of the Human Rights Act 1998 are examined.

Creating a Corporate Anti-doping Culture: The Role of Bulgarian Sports Governing Bodies

The World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA) vision to promote a new moral order in sport and new forms of organization and management through the World Anti Doping Code (WADC) amount to creating a new corporate culture. The WADC's emphasis on policy implementation places sport governing bodies (SGBs) and managers at the heart of the enterprise. This represents a double challenge: (i) to the organizational culture of SGBs as it entails creating shared systems of meaning that are accepted, internalized, and acted on at every level of an organization, and (ii) to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the WADA in regard to universality and particularity, where the general organizational difficulty is how they are to operate at a global (universal) level whilst such apparently intractable differences exist at the particular (local) level. This essay employs Morgan's metaphor of organizations as cultures to develop an understanding of the process of endorsing a global anti-doping policy. It explores the enactment of the WADC using the Bulgarian Weightlifting Federation as a case in point. While a good level of universal approval of the WADC has been achieved, the main issue remains how to get SGBs' practices in line with it.

Drug Use in Sports: A Veritable Arena for Pharmacists

To describe opportunities and obligations for pharmacists regarding doping control in sports, and to present information and resources on drugs and dietary supplements that are popular among athletes for performance enhancement. Sports medicine journals and articles in English obtained from Medline (1966 through June 2003) using the search terms doping in sports, drugs in sports, dietary supplements, sports, amphetamine, stimulants, ephedrine, ephedra, caffeine, anabolic steroids, human growth hormone, erythropoietin, darbepoetin, androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone, and creatine. Information was also obtained from sports-governing agencies, such as the National Collegiate Athletic Association and the International Olympic Committee. Studies and reports that were credible and scientifically sound that evaluated the ergogenic effects of drugs and dietary supplements. By the author. Pharmacists can participate in doping control programs in a number of ways. Pharmacists also have an obligation when counseling, advising, and treating athletes to help them avoid banned substances. Athletes use a host of drugs for their performance-enhancing effects, many of which are banned by major sports-governing bodies. Myriad dietary supplements are marketed to athletes, claiming to have ergogenic effects. Some of these popular supplements have proven performance-enhancing effects, while others do not. Adverse effects of these drugs and dietary supplements are discussed. A variety of drugs and dietary supplements have proven performance-enhancing effects in athletes. However, many of these substances have adverse effects and are banned by various sports-governing organizations. Pharmacists can play a key role in participating in doping control programs, and can prevent athletes from inadvertently consuming a banned substance.

More than a Game? The Role of Sports Governing Bodies in the Development of Sport Education Programmes

This article explores the extent to which young people can transfer the skills and knowledge gained from a sport education programme to contexts experienced outside the curriculum. Furthermore, it seeks to identify how and where governing bodies of sport can be influential in the promotion of sport education values outside the school context; that is to say, are governing bodies able to develop initiatives to encourage community clubs to adopt a supporting role in the promotion and delivery of sport education?