Context Of Sporting Events Research Articles

The effect of government-public relationships on residents’ support in mega sport events: a moderating effect of government crisis response

ABSTRACT The study seeks to investigate the role of host governments’ policy public relations and crisis response strategies in shaping residents’ support for mega sport events. Specifically, the research focuses on the moderation effects of crisis response strategies on the relationships between the government-public relationships (GPR) dimensions (i.e., control mutuality, trust, and satisfaction) and residents’ support. The research targeted residents of Tokyo, a host city for the 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Online surveys were disseminated via an international survey company between 23rd to 29th October 2020, obtaining 500 complete responses. Then, a two-step approach was utilised to ensure the tenability of the hypothesised model: CFA for testing the measurement model and SEM for testing the hypothetical relationships. There was a positive association between perceived control mutuality and satisfaction with residents’ support for the mega sport event. The study reaffirmed the importance of control mutuality and satisfaction as GPR indicators for residents’ support, introducing this concept into the mega sport event context. In addition, the relationship between control mutuality and residents’ support was moderated by their perception of the appropriateness of crisis response. Based on the results, theoretical and practical implications were presented.

Serious Leisure, Motivation, Experience Value, and Behavioral Intentions in Charity Sport Event Context

Serious Leisure, Motivation, Experience Value, and Behavioral Intentions in Charity Sport Event Context

The outcomes of social capital among event runners: quality of life considerations

PurposeMass participation sport events, such as running events, have the potential to foster social capital among event participants. The purpose of this study is to investigate the interrelationships among sport event participation, social capital and various (behavioral, psychological, informational and negative) outcomes.Design/methodology/approachFollowing Putnam's social capital approach, a research model was developed and tested using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling, based on survey data from 301 runners with varied running histories and event experiences.FindingsResults showed a limited impact of sport event participation on participants' social capital, indicating that the temporary interactions within the event timeframe were insufficient to generate sustainable social capital among event participants. Nevertheless, significant relationships were found between social capital and behavioral, psychological and informational outcomes of social capital, suggesting that social capital can be converted to a range of benefits for participants and the event community.Practical implicationsEvent marketers and sponsors should take strategic actions to enhance participants' social experience and cultivate social capital, which may help them gain support from the event community irrespective of past experiences with participation.Originality/valueThis study extends Putnam's social capital framework into mass participation sport event context. As an initial effort to quantitatively test the linkage among event participation, social capital and various outcomes, this study offers empirical insights into the role of sport event participation in generating long-term social benefits for event participants.

Predicting Active Sport Participant's Approach Behaviors from Emotions and Meaning Attributed to Sport Event Experience

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of emotions on sport consumers' meanings, or stored cognitive evaluations, attributed to a participatory sport event experience, and measure how these constructs directly influence event satisfaction and indirectly influence future approach behaviors. Data were collected from a sample of 231 5K and half marathon runners in the Southeastern US using a postevent online survey. Results indicated that meaning attributed to the event experience partially mediated the relationship between emotions and event satisfaction. Additionally, event satisfaction significantly influenced future approach behaviors. Finally, positive emotions (i.e., elation) had a stronger relationship with meaning attributed to the event experience than negative ones (i.e., anger, unhappiness, and worry). The findings illustrated how positive affective experiences drive consumers' cognitive processes related to the formation of meaning and satisfaction in a sport event context and contribute to positive behaviors that are vital to sport organizations.

Sport event innovation: a preliminary conceptualization and directions for future research

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to conceptualize sport event innovation and propose a fruitful future research agenda for scholars.Design/methodology/approachFollowing Gilson and Goldberg's (2015) criterion of a good conceptual paper, the authors (a) provide a review of the central tenets of innovation and sport innovation literature and link them together within a new definition of sport event innovation, (b) expand the field by suggesting several theoretical perspectives for studying this area and (c) visually represent the links between each aspect of our conceptualization in a figure. Based on our definition, the authors also highlight illustrative examples of sport event innovation.FindingsThis paper provides an initial working definition of sport event innovation and offers avenues of sport event innovation research underpinned by various research perspectives (i.e. process of innovation, institutional theory, stakeholder theory, interorganizational relationships and knowledge-based view) likely to prove useful for the advancement of scholarship in sport event management. Additionally, a general recognition of the potential practical implication related to this paper is discussed.Originality/valueThis conceptual paper bridges the knowledge gap between sport event and innovation research by merging the independent literature and conceptualizing sport event innovation. In doing so, the authors provide an advantageous starting point for future research on innovation in the sport event context with a view towards advancing both theory and practice in this area.

A study of event brand image, destination image, event, and destination loyalty among international sport tourists

ABSTRACT Research questions Sport management researchers have utilized the concept of brand image to understand sport consumers’ experiences. However, this concept has rarely been applied in a participatory sport event context. In this study, we proposed a conceptual framework of event brand image for distance running events, and explored how international sport tourists’ perceived event brand image generates event and destination loyalty. Research methods The data of the study were collected from international participants (N = 441) of 36th Reykjavik Marathon in 2019. Of the respondents, 52.6% were male, 73.3% aged between 30 and 59 years old, and 84.6% held a bachelor’s degree or higher. Most of the respondents (91.2%) came from Europe and North America. A behavioral profile revealed that 48.4% of respondents ran the full marathon, 36.3% the half marathon, 13.9% the 10 km, and 1.5% the 3 km. Results and findings The results indicate that three attributes (i.e. course, organization, and atmosphere) and two benefits (i.e. achievement and escape) were positively associated with participants’ event attitude. Event attitude was directly positively associated with event loyalty, destination image, and destination loyalty. Finally, destination image mediated the relationships between event attitude and event loyalty, and between event attitude and destination loyalty. Implications This study contributes to the literature by applying a conceptual framework of brand image in a participatory sport event context, and identifying the mediating role of the destination image.

Unpacking the public/government relationship in the context of sport events: an agency theory approach

ABSTRACT In the context of sport events, local governments are often, at least in part, responsible for bringing an event to a community and determining the extent of public funding invested. Due to the government’s role and responsibility to act in the best interest of residents, the dyadic public/government relationship is an integral part of publicly funded sport events. However, the nuances of the public/government relationship in the context of sport events have seldom been investigated. The purpose of this contribution is to offer a conceptual approach to explore the host resident/local government relationship in the sport event context. Using agency theory, we situate host residents as the principal, delegating tasks to the local government, the agent. We demonstrate how introducing concepts of knowledge, power, and trust from this perspective can determine the extent to which principal-agent problems may exist in the context of a sport event. This in turn offers insights into the political impact sport events may have in communities and how the local government can better serve host residents in this context. Methodological suggestions, such as drawing on mixed methods approaches and engaging diverse groups of research participants are offered to provide researchers the tools to apply these concepts in the context of publicly funded sport events.

Assessment of Event Quality in Major Spectator Sports: Single-Item Measures

The purpose of this study was to develop measurement scale of event quality in spectator sports - single-item measures (SEQSS-SIM). The reliability and validity of single item measures developed in the current study were tested using the responses from 220 spectators of a Major League Baseball game. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted along with structural equation modeling. The results indicate that single item measures fairly represent 11 key aspects of sport events. Although scholars addressed the usefulness and necessity of single item measures, this approach has not been explored in the sport event context. Therefore, the current study will contribute methodologically to the measurement of event quality by offering a parsimonious and psychometrically sound scale to measure spectators’ perceived sport event quality. Event managers can use the single-item measures as a convenient diagnostic tool to evaluate spectators’ quality perceptions in an efficient and effective manner.

Exploring the value sponsors co-create at a charity sport event: a multiple stakeholder perspective of sport value

ABSTRACT The charity sport event experience is created by a wide array of stakeholders. This research explores value co-creation for charity sport event sponsors. Specifically, the purpose of the current research is to examine charity sport event sponsors’ and managers’ perceptions of how sponsors co-create value in the charity sport event context. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with charity sport event sponsors (n = 5) and charity sport event managers (n = 5). Within the interviews with sponsor representatives, one theme, sponsor contributions as symbolic contributions, and two categories: giving beyond financial contribution and internal awareness were uncovered. One theme, sponsors as event advocates, and two categories, cause amplification and employee participation, emerged from the interviews with event managers. The interviews also revealed similarities in the perceptions of sponsor managers and event managers in that sponsor employees are viewed as important advocates for the cause and partnership. Meanwhile, differences between the two groups emerged as event managers spoke explicitly about importance of financial contributions from the sponsors, while sponsorship managers highlighted how the sponsorship went beyond the monetary aspects. The findings can be integrated into event management strategy to create off-site event initiatives and to use digital storytelling facilitate engagement between the event and sponsor.

The role of advocacy organisations for ethical mega sport events

ABSTRACT Non-governmental organisations have sought to enshrine progressive and ethical principles, protocols, and practices into governance arrangements for mega sport events. Evidence on whether, and how, they influence awarding bodies and events for the better, however, is scarce. Two research questions guided the present research: What role human rights advocacy organisations play at different stages of the event lifecycle? What is the nature of relationships between advocacy organisations and event awarding bodies to ensure that human rights are effectively embedded into decision-making processes? The authors conducted interviews with representatives from three advocacy organisations campaigning for human rights, two event awarding bodies and two intermediary organisations. A thematic analysis revealed four central themes: accepting responsibility for human rights; considering events as human-rights leveraging opportunity; facilitating within-coalition balance and independence of advocacy organisations; and implementing good governance and structural change. The findings contribute to the understanding of advocacy organisations within the sport event context by identifying relevant roles and relationships (including success factors and burdens on human rights).

Travelling to a Sport Event: Profiling Sport Fans Against the Transtheoretical Model of change

This article profiles the travel behavior of sport fans against the transtheoretical model of change (TTM) and its application to sport events. Using the four constructs of the TTM, we distributed a self-reporting survey to sport fans prior to home fixtures. There is some synergy with the theorized stages of change and processes of change in this context. Notwithstanding, the results showed a high level of commitment to others in the early stages of change—a movement away from the prescribed theory. Results from decisional balance and self-efficacy items reaffirmed the congruence with theory and the application of the TTM to sport fans and their travel behavior. This study assessed the application of a stage-based model of change within a sport event context; it provides an exploration of the antecedents of behavior change indicators relevant to sport fans, thus enabling policy makers to make informed decisions about future travel behavior change.

Central actors in the live sport event context: a sport spectator value perception model

PurposeThis study is a micro-level perspective of value co-creation in spectator sport. By examining sport through the value co-creation lens, the dual role of the customer as both a contributor to and a beneficiary of value is acknowledged and the importance of stakeholder interactions is emphasized. This study analyzes the extent to which two theoretically and managerially important factors—attendance frequency (i.e. first-time attendee vs repeat attendee) and resident type (i.e. local resident vs domestic traveler)—impact value creation in the recurring live sporting event setting.Design/methodology/approachData were collected from spectators who attended a National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) sanctioned racing event. Multigroup structural equation modeling was performed to examine the proposed pathways, and multigroup t-tests were used to compare the model across both groups for each moderating variable. Corresponding path coefficients were then compared using Chin's (2004) recommended equations and procedures.FindingsThe study found organization-related value propositions to be the more common antecedents of value, while customer appearance had a strong negative association with hedonic value, and attendance frequency and resident type influenced certain value perceptions. Sport organizations should consider the expectations and motivations of various customer groups and provide offerings designed to meet the specific needs of different fan segments based on the spectator's experience with the sport product and the distance traveled to attend the sport event.Originality/valueThis paper advances the authors’ understanding of value creation in sport by showing how customer perceptions of value associated with the sport organization and other customers can be moderated by certain behavioral and geographic factors.

Sport participation behaviours of spectators attending major sports events and event induced attitudinal changes towards sport

PurposeEvidence of the link between major sports events and increased participation at grassroots level is somewhat mixed. The purpose of this paper is to examine attitudinal changes to sport participation among spectators associated with seven sports events held in Great Britain in 2014.Design/methodology/approachPrimary data were gathered from 4,590 spectators aged 16 and over who attended one of the events. Both positive (inspiration) effects and negative (discouragement) effects were considered through the lens of the transtheoretical model (TTM).FindingsThe evidence from this research indicates that event audiences belong primarily to the latter (more active) stages of the TTM. It was also found that attending sports events can further fuel the existing desire of contemplators to increase participation, whereas the catalytic effect among pre-contemplators is arguably less potent. Virtually no discouragement effects were observed across the different TTM stages.Research limitations/implicationsThe research stops short of measuring actual changes in sport participation post-event of individuals in the different TTM stages and any attribution of such behaviour changes to events. This is both a limitation of the current research and a natural direction for future research.Practical implicationsThe main implications for promoting sport participation through the medium of sports events include attracting more people in the early stages of the TTM, greater collaboration between different event stakeholders and the building of sport participation strategies into the event planning phase.Originality/valueModels of behaviour change such as the TTM have seldom been applied to document the current and/or planned sport participation behaviour of individuals in a sport event context or to examine attitudinal changes towards sport as a result of attending an event. An adapted version of the TTM has been proposed to overcome the limitations of the traditional model.

Examining the effect of experiential marketing on behavioral intentions in a festival with a specific sport event

ABSTRACTResearch question: Participation in sport events is a significant aspect of experience. So far very few analyses exist that shed light on the kind of experiences that satisfy participants within the context of sport events. Using an experiential marketing approach, a behavioral model was tested in which perceived experiences and attitudes were proposed to interact with satisfaction to predict behavioral intentions of participants in festival with a specific sport event.Research methods: The proposed model was tested by path analysis. The sample setting of this study was Dragon Fest, which is held in Turkey’s different cities. Data for the pilot study were collected from 358 Dragon Fest participants in 2013, while a different sample of 490 participants were included in the main study for the path analysis.Results and findings: The current study verified the value of incorporating an experiential approach into sport event modeling. The relative importance of hedonic and utilitarian attitudes on sport event evaluation decisions was also presented. This study is unique in considering the utility of both hedonic and utilitarian attitudes and 4E experiences in a sport event context.Implications: Sport event organizers should design their event programs to facilitate experiencing different types of experiences with regard to senses of feeling (entertainment), learning (education), being (esthetic), and doing (escapist). This may be a convenient tool for sport and leisure-marketing efforts because the more experience dimensions an event incorporates the more individuals become satisfied and repeat attendance behavior in the future.

Sport events and human rights: positive promotion or negative erosion?

In this paper, we build upon recent scholarship on sport event legacies to identify, categorise, and describe the key processes underpinning sport event interactions with human rights (HR). It develops a simple, representative model to illustrate the points where sport events bisect with HR and considers what factors can modify these impacts. The development of this model is based on a meta-review of literature and examination of case studies. It is clear from our analysis that sport events are malleable, symbolic, and political occurrences that can be positioned to provide evidence and support of benefice or harm to the cause of HR. The model also provides a nuanced approach to consider how sport event organisers may begin to think about the tactics and strategies that might be employed, and how they might leverage HR through their sport event. The model also indicates that HR, being similarly malleable political tools, are paradoxical in application in the sport event context and consequently cannot be assumed to be taken-for-granted as event outcomes or outputs.

Sponsor and Sponsees Interactions: Effects on Consumers’ Perceptions of Brand Image, Brand Attachment, and Purchasing Intention

Notwithstanding the substantial development of sponsorship investigations, relationships between the sponsor and cosponsees and fan’s responses (i.e., cognitive, affective and conative) have not been investigated yet in a multiple sponsorship sport event context. Hence, the purpose of this study was to analyze the impact of commercial sponsorships on the intention to purchase sponsor products in relation to brand image and brand attachment. Furthermore, this researcher analyzed the relationships between a sponsor (adidas), an event (2006 FIFA Soccer World Cup Germany), a team (French National Soccer Team) and a top player (Zinédine Zidane). Structural equation modeling was used to conduct this research. The crucial results revealed that a multiple sponsorship arrangement creates interactions between the sponsor and the sponsees brands cognitive and affective stages. Secondly, the model demonstrated that multiple sponsorship activates brand behavioral dimensions (i.e., cognitive, affective and conative) according to the hierarchy of effects model (Lavidge & Steiner, 1961).

Points of Leverage: Maximizing Host Community Benefit from a Regional Surfing Festival

This research investigates the potential for sport event leverage in the context of a relatively small surfing festival in regional Australia. Chalip's (2004) model for sport event leverage underpinned the study. Event leveraging is a recent phenomenon, with empirical research sparse and limited to mega and hallmark events in large cities. This study develops our understanding of event leverage in a smaller, more regional context. Data came from participant observation, interviews with key stakeholders and documentary evidence. The study reveals the centrality of sport subculture to both immediate and longer-term event leverage. By demonstrating the potential for leverage from a small event in a regional centre, the findings lend empirical weight to Chalip's (2004) theoretical model and suggest the model may be more generally applicable than previously thought. Implications for triple bottom line leverage and sustainability in the sport event context are also drawn.