Sport Commitment Model Research Articles

An Examination of the Sport Commitment Model for Athletes With Physical Disabilities.

Sport commitment describes a psychological attachment to a sport that influences one's desire or resolve to continue involvement in it. Studying antecedents believed to influence long term commitment to sport among athletes with a disability will help ensure that participants gain those psychosocial and health outcomes from sport participation that benefit quality of life. Our purposes in this study were: (i) to examine the Sport Commitment Model (SCM) in terms of the magnitude of the contribution of antecedent factors (i.e., enjoyment, personal investment, involvement opportunities, social constraints, involvement alternatives) to sport commitment of athletes with disabilities; and (ii) to examine the model structure (i.e., original SCM, mediation, and direct/indirect model) that best reflects an understanding of the sport commitment antecedents for these athletes. A total of 157 adult athletes (M age = 34.87, SD = 11.78) with physical disabilities from both team and individual sports across the United States, Europe, and Asia completed the Sport Commitment Questionnaire. Data analyses indicated that sport involvement opportunities, followed by personal investment, were the strongest predictors of these athletes' sport commitments (R2 = .66). Based on the principle of parsimony, the original structural equation model (χ2 (215) = 384.95; RMSEA = .07; CFI = .95; SRMR = .06) was deemed better for understanding the mechanism of sport commitment than the mediation or direct/indirect models. We address implications of applying the SCM to athletes with disabilities, and we offer suggestions for future research.

Better to Have Played Than Not Played? Childhood Sport Participation, Dropout Frequencies and Reasons, and Mental Health in Adulthood

This study considers the long-term mental health implications of organized youth sport participation, informed by an accumulation model of health, the Sport Commitment Model, and a life course perspective. Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,931) and multiple regression analyses, results indicate that adults who continually played organized youth sport had fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms compared with those who played and dropped out and those who never played. Dropouts had worse mental health than those who never played. Furthermore, among dropouts, reported interpersonal reasons for dropping out of organized sport were consistently associated with subsequent mental health but some structural factors also mattered. These findings point to a need to improve the interpersonal and structural environments of organized youth sport.

Commitment in sport: Motivational climate, need satisfaction/thwarting and behavioural outcomes

We examined whether motivational climate (autonomy-supportive coach climate; controlling coach climate) and basic psychological need satisfaction/thwarting (i.e., autonomy, competence, relatedness) were related to sport commitment (enthusiastic and constrained commitment) and self-reported behavioural outcomes (i.e., behavioural effort; intention to continue) in sport. Participants were 229 young adult athletes from a range of sports (M age = 19.70 years; SD = 1.51 yrs) who had participated in their sport for an average of 10.1 years (SD = 4.03 yrs). Path analyses revealed positive associations amongst autonomy-supportive climate, need satisfaction, enthusiastic commitment, and self-reported behavioural outcomes. Similarly, positive links were found amongst controlling climate, need thwarting, constrained commitment, and, to a lesser extent, behavioural outcomes. We also examined mediation effects: (a) the relationship between need satisfaction and behavioural effort was partially mediated by enthusiastic commitment; (b) the relationship between need satisfaction and future intentions was fully mediated by enthusiastic commitment; while (c) no significant mediation effects were found for need thwarting, commitment dimensions, and behavioural outcomes. Our results highlighted the role of enthusiastic commitment as an important psychological construct mediating the relationship between athlete need satisfaction and behavioural outcomes. We extended previous research examining sport commitment by integrating the multidimensional Sport Commitment Model (enthusiastic and constrained commitment) with need satisfaction and need thwarting in an effort to investigate self-reported behavioural outcomes in sport. Future research employing longitudinal research designs is needed to examine these relationships over time and with behavioural measures of effort, intention to continue, and actual persistence.

An Analysis of Schmidt and Stein’s Sport Commitment Model and Athlete Profiles

The sport commitment model proposed by Schmidt and Stein is one of the most complete paradigms on the etiology of burnout syndrome. According to this model, the degree of burnout of athletes is related to the nature of their commitment to sporting activity. Based on the Benefits, Costs, Satisfaction, Alternatives, and Investments, three types of athletes are defined: (1) athletes who are fully committed because they enjoy the activity; (2) athletes who are committed because they feel trapped; (3) athletes who are not committed and are at risk of abandonment. Analysis of cluster and analysis of variance were performed using data collected from a sample of 357 athletes. The results were aligned with the Schmidt and Stein model predictions in terms of athlete type and partial scores for each component of the model, although with slight variations. The percentage of athletes correctly classified is 99.35% for the cluster of committed athletes; 97.35% for the cluster of entrapped athletes; 96.63% for the cluster of non-committed athletes at risk of abandonment. In conclusion, the sport commitment model provides a useful approach to explain the etiology of burnout in athletes, helping to understand the psychological keys to the syndrome.

Applying the Sport Commitment Model to Sport Injury Rehabilitation.

Sustaining effort and persistence throughout injury rehabilitation are common goals for sport health care professionals. Considerable research in the sport domain has explored the issue of commitment to sport, as well as what predicts or influences an athlete's continued desire and resolve to continue participation. Scanlan and colleagues developed the sport commitment model (SCM) that places enjoyment as central construct influencing athletes' commitment. According to the model, perceptions of enjoyment, personal investments, involvement opportunities, attractive alternatives, social constraints, and social support should predict an athlete's level of sport commitment. One could argue the same may be true for commitment to sport injury rehabilitation. By applying the SCM to sport injury rehabilitation, practitioners may be able to enhance an athlete's commitment to their rehabilitation, prolong adherence, and increase other positive outcomes, such as increased enjoyment, motivation, and successful return to competition. The purpose of this pilot study was to explore the applicability of the SCM to the injury rehabilitation setting. Correlational design was used. Division I, intercollegiate athletic training room. 51 injured intercollegiate male and female athletes, 5 certified athletic trainers, and 8 senior, athletic training students. At the approximate midpoint of each athlete's injury rehabilitation, participants completed SCM measures. Certified athletic trainers and senior athletic training students independently assessed each injured athlete on effort, energy, and intensity during rehabilitation sessions. Rehabilitation commitment, enjoyment, investments, attractive alternatives, social constraints, perceived costs, and rehabilitation behaviors. Higher perceptions of investments predicted rehabilitation commitment. However, none of the SCM determinants predicted athletic trainer-rated rehabilitation behaviors. Future research should continue to explore commitment constructs in relation to rehabilitation motivation.

Hungarian Adaptation of the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 and Test of an Expanded Model with Psychological Variables

Abstract The aims of this study were to adapt the Hungarian version of the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 and test an expanded Sport Commitment Model (SCM) with psychological variables. Participants were 526 adolescent athletes (aged 14-18 years, 52.3% males). Applied scales were the following: Hungarian version of the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2, Consideration of the Future Consequences Scale and Health Attitudes Scale. Exploratory, confirmatory, and path analysis were used for statistical analysis. Our result showed adequate construct validity of the Hungarian version of Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2. We found several positive predictors of Enthusiastic Commitment and three positive predictors of Constrained Commitment. We found that Health Attitudes had positive relationship with Constrained Commitment and it was associated with future goals and plans; whereas Enthusiastic Commitment had a positive relationship, and Constrained Commitment had a negative relationship with Future Orientation. Information about sport commitment provided by Sport Commitment Questionnaire may be useful as a tool to prevent dropout among young athletes.

Basic psychological needs, exercise intention and sport commitment as predictors of recreational sport participants’ exercise adherence

Objective: This study aims to predict exercise adherence by examining from the standpoints of the exercise intention, the self-determination theory and the sport commitment model. Design and Main Outcome Measures: Data were collected from 391 Korean sports centre members (teens: 5.4%, twenties: 15.1%, thirties: 25.1%, forties: 28.1% and ≥ fifties: 26.3%). Questionnaires assessed the exercise intention and sport commitment as well as autonomy, competence and relatedness. Exercise adherence was measured by electronic attendance system. Data were analysed using reliability testing, descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, logistic regression analysis and binary classifier system. Results: All variables except for cognitive commitment had significant predictive power for 3-month exercise adherence. In contrast, only basic psychological needs were found to have significant predictive power for 6-month exercise adherence. Further, autonomy (OR = 4.58) showing the strongest predictive power (classification accuracy = 86.4%). Conclusion: These findings imply that ‘basic psychological needs’ plays a more key role than ‘exercise intention’ in predicting exercise adherence. This study has implications that need to focus not only on enjoyment or competition but also on the autonomy, relatedness and competence pertaining to the basic psychological needs and to work to satisfy those needs and maintain motivation to continue regular exercise.

The Relationship Between the Models of Sport Commitment and Self-Determination among Adolescent Athletes

Summary This study examined the relationship between the Sport Commitment Model and the Self-Determination Theory. The participants were 214 adolescent athletes who completed the Hungarian version of the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 and the Hungarian version of the Sport Motivation Scale. Several commitment sources predicted SMS scores as well. Amotivation was predicted by the obligatory reason for commitment such as Personal Investment-Loss and Other Priorities. External Regulation was predicted by Social factors of commitment. Introjected Regulation was determined by Desire to Excel-Mastery and Personal Investment-Loss. Identified Regulation was explained by Desire to Excel-Mastery, Valuable Opportunities, and Personal Investment-Loss. Integrated Regulation was explained with Valuable Opportunities, Desire to Excel-Mastery, Personal Investment-Loss and Social Support-Informal. The Intrinsic Motivation subscale was significantly predicted by Desire to Excel-Mastery, Personal Investment-Loss, Sport Enjoyment and Social Support-Informal. As we see the types of commitment showed a clear association with SMS, however the commitment sources showed a complex relationship with self-determination, thus it is hard to separate them on the Self-determination continuum.

Sport Commitment among Malaysian Racquet Sports Athletes.

BackgroundThe Sport Commitment Model is widely used to understand the motivation and commitment of athletes to continue playing sports. However, the factors influencing athletes’ commitment to racquet sports have not received much research attention, especially in Malaysia.PurposeThis study aims to use the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 (SCQ-2) to examine Malaysian athletes’ commitment to racquet sports.MethodsA total of 612 athletes (367 males/245 females, μ age= 30.32 ± 11.56) completed the SCQ-2, which measures seven factors and two dimensions of sport commitment.ResultsThe results revealed that sport enjoyment was the main factor contributing to the athletes’ commitment in all sports. Two-way ANOVA analyses showed significant differences in athletes’ enthusiastic commitment [F(3,604) = 44.92, P = 0.00] and constrained commitment [F(3,604) = 15.32, P = 0.00] across four sports. There were also significant differences in both enthusiastic commitment [F(3,604) = 7.53, P = 0.00] and constraint commitment [F(3,604) = 18.82, P = 0.00] across age groups.ConclusionEnjoyment is the main factor in sport commitment. Tennis athletes possess the highest level of enthusiastic commitment across all the racquet sports. Moreover, male athletes showed higher levels of enthusiastic commitment than female athletes.

An exploration of commitment in nature-based recreation, and its relationship with participation and purchase behaviour

ABSTRACTCommitment to nature-based recreation is important for health outcomes, to support the conservation of the natural environment, and for economic reasons. Committed participants are likely to continue to support the activity with their subscriptions and memberships, and to make other activity-related purchases. However, the relationship between the psychological and behavioural components of commitment remains contested. This research investigates the commitment-behaviour link to help us understand some of the outcomes of nature-based recreation. The study used a modified version of the Sport Commitment Model (SCM) to measure the psychological commitment of 1024 nature-based recreationists active in freshwater angling, mountaineering, hunting or tramping. We examined the relationship between their psychological and behavioural commitment, measuring this through the frequency of participation and activity-related expenditure. Findings suggest a positive relationship for both, although surprisingly stronger for purchase than participation. However, we also identified a confounding effect of income, with activity-related expenditure being related to both psychological commitment and income.

COMMITMENT, FEAR TO BE EVALUATED AND DROP OUT IN YOUNG FOOTBALLERS ACCORDING TO THE SPORT CATEGORY

The sport can enhance psychological variables in young people, such as commitment or fun, and maybe differently in each sport category. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there are significant differences between competitiveness, social anxiety, engagement, fun and motivational orientation (to the ego and to the task) to the sports category U11(under-11 years old), U14(under-14 years old) and U16(under-16 years old). Total sample of this study, with a quantitative methodology, and a design descriptive and correlational, was N = 205 subjects (90 U11, 34 U14 and 81 U16). Instruments about Competitiveness Scale-10 (C-10), Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SASC-R), Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ), SCQ-e (The Sport Commitment Model Questionnaire) and Fun Questionnaire Subjects Sports Practice (CDPD) were applicated. The main results highlight that fear of negative evaluation scale is higher in U11, U14 and U16 in first year compared in later years; and opportunities for involvement and enjoyment increase from the first year to the subsequent years in each category, reflecting the importance of learning about experience and continuity in sport practice. Article visualizations:

Aspects influencing the commitment of endurance athletes: a tourism perspective

ABSTRACTVarious studies have been done on the sport commitment of endurance athletes who take part in events, but few have been done from the perspectives of both commitment and tourism. Such a combined approach, drawing on psychology and the social sciences, would benefit not only the endurance event but also the host destination. The Sport Commitment Model, an established model in the sport literature, is insufficient on its own to measure endurance athletes’ commitment. It should be applied in conjunction with other models and theories, such as involvement theory, and should take into account aspects such as lifestyle, event attributes and travel behaviour, whose influence on athletes’ participation specifically in endurance events has yet to be determined. To fill this gap in the sport tourism literature, an online survey aimed at endurance athletes participating in South African events was conducted in 2015. A questionnaire was distributed via South African endurance event websites and endurance sport social media. Data from 498 completed questionnaires showed that lifestyle, event attributes and travel behaviour were related positively to these athletes’ commitment. Structural equation modelling revealed that to encourage commitment, the focus should be on managing lifestyle and travel behaviour. Overall, the high mean values of the commitment factors indicated that endurance athletes are highly committed. Event organisers and marketers could use this commitment in marketing campaigns to ensure loyalty to their particular event, increase on-flow tourism from the event, spread event participation geographically, highlight the lifestyle benefits of endurance sport participation and decrease sport abandonment.

A structural Model of Self-efficacy in Handball Referees.

The study aimed to identify factors predicting self-efficacy in a sample of 248 Italian handball referees. The main hypothesis was that perception of teamwork efficacy would be a significant predictor of self-efficacy in handball referees. Participants completed an online questionnaire including Referee Self-Efficacy Scale (α = 0.85), Self-Determination Scale (α = 0.78), and an adaptation for Referees of the Sport Commitment Model (α = 0.80). Two hierarchical regression analyses have identified: (1) Enjoyment (β = 0.226), Couple Efficacy (β = 0.233), and Personal Awareness (β = 0.243), as predictors of Self-Efficacy; (2) Span of Co-Refereeing (β = 0.253), Perceived Quality of the Relationship (β = 0.239), and Mutual Agreement (β = 0.274), as predictors of Couple Self-Efficacy. A further SEM analysis confirmed the fit of a structural model of Self-efficacy considering the reciprocal influence of Couple Efficacy, Enjoyment and Awareness (χ2: 5.67; RMSEA: 0.000; SRMR: 0.019). The study underlines the importance of teamwork (or co-refereeing) as it relates to enjoyment and awareness in officiating and how it enhances the psychological well-being of handball referees. Future studies should investigate the relationship between factors influencing perceived teamwork efficacy and officiating performance outcome.

Psychological antecedents of youth versus adult participation: An examination based on the Sport Commitment Model

This study examined adult and youth Taekwondo (TKD) participants utilizing the Sport Commitment Model (SCM). In addition to direct effects predicting commitment, indirect effects of enjoyment as a mediating variable were examined. TKD participants (adult, n = 204; youth, n = 227) from four studios completed a questionnaire that included SCM variables (commitment, enjoyment, involvement alternatives, involvement opportunities, personal investments, social constraints, and social support). Structural equation modeling analysis compared age groups to assess similarities and differences. Similarities between age groups included involvement opportunities and personal investments being significant predictors of commitment while involvement alternatives were a significant detractor of commitment. Analysis of differences found that the social variables (i.e., social constraints and support) and enjoyment were significant predictors for youth only. This was the first study examining the SCM with both youth and adults participating in the same sport activity. Findings are discussed relative to theoretical and practical implications.

Older Adults' Participation in Ballroom Dancing: Practical Application of the Sport Commitment Model

We investigated potential differences in level of sport commitment and its associated antecedents for older adult ballroom dancers in Taiwan. Participants were 150 older adult ballroom dancers who completed a sport commitment questionnaire. Results showed that participation method, experience level, and frequency of participation all had a significant effect on personal investment in ballroom dancing. Frequency of participation also had a significant effect on sport commitment and involvement opportunities. Our findings provide new insights into how older adults perceive ballroom dancing as their chosen physical activity. The results of this study may be used to help leisure service providers and dance instructors understand that sport enjoyment, personal investment, and involvement opportunities are important determinants for participation retention among older adult ballroom dancers.

Perceived Teammate Acceptance and Sport Commitment in Adolescent Female Volleyball Players

Grounded in Scanlan’s sport commitment model (SCM), the purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between feelings of teammate acceptance and sport commitment in a sample of adolescent female volleyball players (N = 209). Despite theoretical justification for including social forms of influence such as social support and social acceptance as direct sources of sport commitment, empirical evidence has not been supportive of this association. Therefore, direct and indirect relationships between teammate acceptance and sport commitment within the SCM were tested. Findings supported the indirect relationship between teammate acceptance and sport commitment through sport enjoyment, personal investments, social constraints, and investment opportunities, accounting for 48% of the variance in sport commitment. It appears that teammate acceptance may be better situated as a distal source of sport commitment, but further research with more diverse samples is necessary. Sports psychologists who can collectively help athletes, coaches, and parents develop responsive interpersonal skills while reducing corporal punishment and aggression tactics can facilitate greater levels of social acceptance.

The Perception of Same Gender Coaches by Iranian Skaters and its Influence on Sport Achievement Motivation and Commitment

Aim: To examine the relationship between the perception of same gender coaches by male and female Iranian skaters and their sport achievement motivation and commitment. Participants: Fifty two female and forty two male skaters, age range 13 to 18 years, from the province of Isfahan in Iran. Materials: The following 3 questionnaires, tested for reliability and validity for the Iranian population and adapted for Farsi, were used: i) Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand and Briere (2001) Interpersonal Behaviour Scale to measure social support of trainers, ii) Gill and Deeter (1988) Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) to measure achievement motivation, and iii) Scanlan, Simons, Carpenter, Schmidt and Keeler (1993) Sport Commitment Model to measure sport commitment. Procedure: The questionnaires were administered to participants in person by the first author after training sessions in sport stadiums. Results: There was a significant positive correlation between perceived coaches' social support and sport achievement motivation and commitment for both male and female participants. However, on all of the above measures females scored significantly more positive ratings than their male counterparts. Results of regression analyses conducted separately for males and females showed that relatedness support is the strongest predictor for sport achievement motivation and commitment for males, whereas autonomy support was the strongest predictor for sport commitment amongst females. Implications: These findings are of particular interest in understanding the impact of perceived coaching support for young male and female athletes, especially if coached exclusively by the same gender.

The development of the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 (English version)

ObjectivesThe purpose of this research was to develop the Sport Commitment Questionnaire-2 (SCQ-2) and establish its psychometric properties. The SCQ-2 measures the updated Sport Commitment Model (SCM: Scanlan, Russell, Scanlan, Klunchoo, & Chow, 2013) and replaces the outdated Sport Commitment Questionnaire (SCQ) that assessed the original SCM (Scanlan, Simons, Carpenter, Schmidt, & Keeler, 1993). DesignBased on prior commitment research, items were generated to refine and expand the original SCQ subscales and to measure new candidate constructs to the SCM. A multiphase study was then conducted. MethodsPhase 1 participants were 753 male/female adolescent athletes (ages 13–19 years) from six sports representing varying levels of task interdependence. Using similar methodology as Phase 1, Phase 2 assessed 982 male/female adolescent athletes. ResultsExploratory factor analysis of Phase 1 data revealed 13 factors: two types of commitment (Enthusiastic and Constrained) and 11 sources. Confirmatory factor analysis of Phase 2 data supported a 58-item, 12-factor structure. In addition, all subscales were internally consistent. Structural equation modeling revealed that the sources explained 81.8% of the variance in Enthusiastic Commitment and 63.9% in Constrained Commitment. ConclusionsThe SCQ-2 assesses the sources and types of commitment in the updated SCM. Based on several indices of fit and the composite reliabilities, psychometric support for the SCQ-2 was established.

Why Do Athletes Remain Committed to Sport After Severe Injury? An Examination of the Sport Commitment Model

The purpose of this study was to examine athletes’ sources of commitment to return to sport following a severe injury using the Sport Commitment Model (Scanlan, Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons, & Keeler, 1993). To address this aim, ten varsity athletes from the University of the Philippines Diliman were interviewed following protocols outlined in the Scanlan Collaborative Interview Method (SCIM; Scanlan, Russell, Wilson, & Scanlan, 2003a). Results indicate that sport enjoyment, valuable opportunities, personal investments, social constraints, and social support were salient sources of commitment, while other priorities had either a neutral or positive effect on commitment. Furthermore, additional constructs were identified, in particular, wanting to be the best, self-affirmation, and contractual obligations. These merit further investigation and possible inclusion in the SCM. Findings are discussed in relation to previous research and practical implications are offered.

"I see inspiration everywhere": potential keys to nurturing healthy obsessions by very successful young weight controllers.

The Healthy Obsession Model posits that committed weight controllers develop preoccupations with the planning and execution of target behaviors to reach healthy goals. We expected that successful weight controllers, more so than unsuccessful weight controllers, would report more elaborate definitions of their healthy obsessions, negative reactions to lapses, and constructive responses to high-risk situations. We also expected to find differential sources of commitment between losers and gainers, including a greater emphasis on emotional and experiential consequences by losers, as documented in the authors' 2012 study. Sixteen adolescent participants who had completed cognitive-behavior therapy immersion treatment for obesity at least 1 year before the interviews (8 successful and 8 unsuccessful weight controllers) completed in-depth interviews based on the Scanlan Collaborative Interview Method. A qualitative analysis followed in which two coders identified themes within the interviews. Reliable coding of the interviews produced results that supported the hypothesis that highly successful weight controllers nurture strong healthy obsessions. Successful weight controllers also reported using significantly more helpful motivators than did unsuccessful weight controllers. In addition, these adolescent weight controllers seemed motivated by some of the same factors that elite athletes identified in the Sport Commitment Model. Clinical implications include focusing weight loss interventions on nurturing healthy obsessions in general and, more specifically, on helping weight controllers use more diverse sources of commitment.