Sport Anxiety Scale Research Articles

Predictors of the precompetitive anxiety response: Relative impact and prospects for anxiety regulation

The intensity and interpretation of precompetitive anxiety symptoms are associated with athletes’ performance and adherence. Whereas the optimal symptom intensity is task- and individual-dependent, a facilitative symptom interpretation is generally adaptive. Past research has identified several variables thought to influence symptom intensity and interpretation. This study set out to compare a selection of prominent predictors and discuss them in terms of anxiety regulation. Prior to an in-season game, female and male intercollegiate team sport athletes reported their precompetitive anxiety symptom intensity and interpretation (Directional Modification of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2) as well as their perceptions of team cohesion (Group Environment Questionnaire). Beforehand, they indicated their competitive trait anxiety (Sport Anxiety Scale-2), competitive experience, and starting status. Further, gender, team ranking, opponent ranking, and game location were recorded. Logistic regression analyses revealed higher trait anxiety as the strongest predictor of more intense precompetitive anxiety symptoms and more debilitative interpretations. In addition to trait anxiety, better team ranking and an away game location predicted more intense symptoms, whereas higher cohesion predicted a more facilitative interpretation. In terms of effective anxiety regulation, trait anxiety appears to have the greatest effect and, although being hard to reduce, this justifies the time-investment and individual focus in interventions. Conversely, cohesion promises small effects. However, being comparatively easy to enhance, it might constitute a convenient alternative to improve an entire team's symptom interpretation.

SOCIAL ANXIETY IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY PARTICIPATION IN PATIENTS WITH MENTAL ILLNESS: A CROSS-SECTIONAL MULTICENTER STUDY

Social anxiety (SA) is a frequent comorbid condition in patients with mental illness. However, no data exist regarding SA in physical activity (PA) situations. The aim of the present study was to measure the level of self-reported SA in PA participation in patients with mental illness compared to healthy controls. Six hundred ninety-three patients with mental illness and 2,888 controls aged between 18 and 65 years completed the Physical Activity and Sport Anxiety Scale (PASAS). Group and gender differences in PASAS scores were tested by ANOVA and Scheffé's post hoc test. After controlling for gender (P < .05), the patient group (men 40.2 ± 14.4; women 49.2 ± 17) scored higher on the PASAS compared to control group (men 30.6 ± 12.2; women 37.3 ± 13.7). Within both groups, women reported higher levels of SA compared to men. Our data indicate that patients with mental illness reported higher levels of SA in PA situations compared to healthy control subjects. Health professionals should consider SA when trying to improve outcome and adherence of patients with mental illness to PA interventions.

On the possibility of applying achievement goal theory in competitive sports

PurposeThere exist numerous empirical proofs as well as theoretical bases showing that task motivational orientation and task climate allow students and athletes to function better and be more efficient. What is not certain is whether the same applies to athletes competing at the professional level. The aim of this study was to analyze whether task orientation and task-oriented climate help professional athletes avoid experiencing high levels of anxiety, thereby providing a favorable foundation for performance in high-level competition.MethodsBasketball players from the Polish II League (amateur) and Extraleague (professional) were surveyed. Motivational orientation, motivational climate, and anxiety levels were measured by the Perception of Success Questionnaire (POSQ), Perception of Significant Others’ Sport Success Criteria Questionnaire (PSOSSCQ), and Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS), respectively.ResultsThe reliability of the research tools on a Polish population was confirmed. Motivational climate was associated with motivational orientation; task orientation and a task-oriented climate were found to not reduce anxiety levels.ConclusionsThe results do not confirm the application of achievement goal theory in high-level competitive sports.

The relationship between multidimensional competitive anxiety, cognitive threat appraisal, and coping strategies: A multi-sport study

The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between, multidimensional competitive trait anxiety (cognitive and somatic anxiety), trait cognitive threat appraisal, and coping styles. Five-hundred and fifty male and female athletes of several individual and team sports, between the ages of 15 and 35 (M = 19.8 ± 4.5), completed the translated and adapted versions of the Sport Anxiety Scale and of the Brief COPE, as well as the Cognitive Appraisal Scale in Sport Competition – Threat Perception. Pearson and Canonical correlations showed that higher levels of trait cognitive anxiety and threat appraisal were positively related to emotion-focused and avoidance coping and inversely related to problem-focused coping. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of individual differences in trait anxiety and threat appraisals, regarding athletes' coping styles.

Eating disordered behaviours in Portuguese athletes: The influence of personal, sport, and psychological variables

This study describes eating disordered behaviours in a sample of Portuguese elite athletes and analyses the impact of personal and sports factors on those eating disordered behaviours. Two hundred and ninety athletes (51.7% males) practicing collective (64.8%) and individual sports have been included. The evaluation protocol included the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire; the Sport Condition Questionnaire; the Sport Anxiety Scale; the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire; the Cognitive Evaluation of Sport-Threat Perceptions and the Self-Presentation Exercise Questionnaire. Females, athletes with a higher body mass index, and those with a desire to weigh less, reported more eating disordered behaviours. No relation with sports variables was found. Finally, a higher prevalence of eating disorders behaviour was predicted by lower satisfaction in terms of body shape and physical appearance, higher anxiety and impression motivation. Personal characteristics of athletes, as well as their body satisfaction, anxiety, impression motivation and threat perception and coach comments on their weight, represent dimensions that could raise the risk for eating disorders.

Psychological predictors of sport injuries among junior soccer players

Previous researches have established models that specify psychological factors that could predict sport injuries. One example is Williams and Andersen's stress-injury model stressing factors such as anxiety, negative life stress and few coping resources. The purpose of the current study was to find psychological factors that could lead to an increased injury risk among junior soccer players, in addition to construct an empirical model of injury risk factors for soccer players. The participants were 108 male and female soccer players (m=17, 6) studying at soccer high schools in southwest Sweden. Five questionnaires were used, State Trait Anxiety Inventory, Sport Anxiety Scale, Life Events Survey for Collegiate Athletes, Athletic Coping Skills Inventory-28 and Swedish universities Scales of Personality. Injury record was collected by athletic trainers at the schools during a period of 8 months. The result suggested four significant predictors that together could explain 23% of injury occurrence. The main factors are life event stress, somatic trait anxiety, mistrust and ineffective coping. These findings partly support Williams and Andersen's stress-injury model and are organized into an empirical model. Recommendations are given to sport medicine teams and coaches concerning issues in sport injury prevention.

Establishing validity evidence for the Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-2 in intercollegiate sport

Objectives The purpose of the two studies presented in this paper is to establish validity evidence for the Sport Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-2 (Sport-MPS-2: Gotwals & Dunn, 2009). Studies 1 and 2 are respectively focused on the production of structurally-related and external validity evidence. Methods In Study 1, 263 male and female intercollegiate volleyball players ( M age = 19.98 years) completed the Sport-MPS-2. In Study 2, 181 male intercollegiate ice hockey players ( M age = 22.16 years) responded to the Sport-MPS-2, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale ( Frost, Marten, Lahart, & Rosenblate, 1990), and a modified Sport Anxiety Scale ( Smith, Smoll, & Schutz, 1990). Results Exploratory factor analysis results in Study 1 revealed supportive structurally-related validity evidence for the six factors of the Sport-MPS-2. Study 2 generated supportive external validity evidence by producing anticipated moderate to large positive correlations between conceptually analogous Sport-MPS-2 and Frost-MPS subscales (all ps < .001), using canonical correlation to demonstrate that the Sport-MPS-2 was able to represent theory-based relationships between perfectionism and competitive trait anxiety (CTA), and indicating that the Sport-MPS-2—but not the Frost-MPS—was capable of identifying an anticipated link between healthy perfectionism and CTA. Conclusions Results provide support for the continued use of the Sport-MPS-2 as a measure of multidimensional perfectionism in sport.

Validation française de la version modifiée du « Sport Anxiety Scale » (SAS)

According to research in sport psychology, anxiety is one of the most important and studied topics. Since its conceptualisation, many scales assessing sport anxiety have appeared in the English language. At present, the multidimensional conceptualisation of anxiety is dominant. Smith et al. developed a self-report questionnaire to assess the anxiety trait in sport (Sport Anxiety Scale, SAS). As a consequence, it seems important to have such an instrument in French language in order to fill in questionnaires on lack of self-report so as to assess cognitive and somatic anxiety traits.The SAS was developed with 30 items in two factors: somatic anxiety and cognitive anxiety. However, the final version of the SAS had 24 items in three factors. A third factor was identified during factorial analyses: concentration disruption. Sarason's researches corroborate in part this third factor with the theory of cognitive interferences. Dunn et al. underlined the theoretical incoherence of this assumption. In the same way, Neil et al. suggested the deletion of this third dimension.Considering all these results, the aim of this study is to suggest a French translation of the SAS, taking into account the modified version suggested by Neil et al.The scale was translated according to Vallerand's process. Two hundred and seven sportsmen (135 boys and 71 girls) aged 20 years (S.D.=2.5 years) filled out the scale on site. A Confirmatory Factorial Analysis (CFA) using the LISREL 8.30((c)) software was conducted. ANOVAs were also carried out to compare trait anxiety scores as a function of gender; level and type of sport.The CFA results on both models are acceptable (chi(2)/ddl=1.60, Comparative fit index (CFI)=0.98, Global fit index (GFI)=0.92, Standardized root mean square residual (SRMR)=0.05, Root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)=0.05) and Cronbach's alpha for each scale ranged from 0.86 for cognitive trait anxiety to 0.89 for somatic trait anxiety. The ANOVAs show a difference according to gender (girls were more anxious than boys); level (the higher the level, the more the sportsmen were anxious) and type of sport (those who practiced collective sports were more anxious than those who practised individual sports). To conclude, and waiting for other researches using the French version of SAS, it appears that this scale is generally acceptable, and can be a useful tool for research on the anxiety trait in sport.

Validation of the French version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised (CSAI-2R) including frequency and direction scales

Objectives The main purpose of the present study was to evaluate the validity and the reliability of the French version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised (CSAI-2R) including direction and frequency scales. Method Six hundred and forty two male and female athletes competing in different individual and team sports participated in the study. Data were analysed with reliability and confirmatory factor analyses as well as with correlational analyses. Design Cross-sectional with self-reported questionnaires. Results Confirmatory factor analyses showed acceptable fits of the data for the 3-factor models (somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety and self-confidence) of the intensity, direction, and frequency scales, and a good fit of the data for the hypothesized 9-factor model (i.e., including the three scales). Results provided evidence for the relative superiority of a model of the French CSAI-2R in which the somatic anxiety item 1 was discarded. The pattern of inter-scale correlations between the different subscales was in line with the results reported by the literature and suggested not including the self-confidence direction subscale because it might measure the same concept as the self-confidence intensity subscale. The patterns of relationships between the Sport Anxiety Scale, the Sport-Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Sport-MPS) and the three scales of the CSAI-2R provided evidence for the criterion-related validity of the French CSAI-2R. Conclusion This study provided support for the reliability and validity of the French version of the CSAI-2R including direction and frequency scales. Competitive state anxiety is significantly associated with competitive trait anxiety and sport perfectionism.

Anxiety and Coping Strategies in Sport Contexts: A Look at the Psychometric Properties of Portuguese Instruments for their Assessment

The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Portuguese versions of the Sport Anxiety Scale and of the Brief COPE, as well as of the Cognitive Appraisal Scale in Sport Competition-Threat Perception, namely regarding their factor structure validity and internal consistency. Participants were 550 male and female athletes of several sports, aged 15- to 35-years-old (M=19.8; SD=4.5). Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis indicated that the instruments demonstrated good psychometric properties. In general, the measurement models provided a good fit to the empirical data and with the exception of some scales of the Brief COPE, the calculated Cronbach's a coefficient of reliability indicated adequate internal consistency for the three instruments. Overall, the results of the present study provided evidence for these instruments' validity and reliability, ultimately supporting their importance for research and psychological intervention in sport contexts.

Competitive anxiety in young athletes: Differentiating somatic anxiety, worry, and concentration disruption

The age-appropriate Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2; Smith, Smoll, Cumming, & Grossbard, 2006) was used to assess levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety among male and female youth sport participants. Confirmatory factor analyses with a sample of 9–14 year old athletes (N=1038) supported the viability of a three-factor model of anxiety involving somatic anxiety, worry, and concentration disruption previously demonstrated in high school and college samples. Tests for factorial invariance revealed that the three-factor model was an equally good fit for 9–11 year olds and 12–14 year olds, and for both males and females. Gender and age were modestly related to anxiety scores. Worry about performing poorly was highest in girls and in older athletes, whereas boys reported higher levels of concentration disruption in competitive sport situations. Implications for emotional perception and for the study of competitive anxiety in young athletes are discussed.

Eating disorder symptoms among undergraduate varsity athletes, club athletes, independent exercisers, and nonexercisers

To examine whether differences in eating disorder symptoms exist between women who are varsity athletes, club athletes, independent exercisers, and nonexercisers and to determine whether sports anxiety moderates any observed between-group effects. Two hundred seventy four female undergraduates completed the eating disorders inventory and the physical activity and sport anxiety scale and reported their exercise habits. Women who participated in sports tended to have higher levels of eating disorder symptomatology than those who did not. Higher levels of sports anxiety were predictive of higher levels of bulimic symptoms and drive for thinness. Finally, the interaction of sports anxiety and level of athletic participation significantly predicted body dissatisfaction and bulimic symptoms. Coaches and clinicians should be aware that athletes experience higher rates of eating disorder symptoms than nonathletes. Moreover, sports anxiety should be considered as a possible target of therapy among athletes.

A cluster analysis of precompetitive anxiety: Relationship with perfectionism and trait anxiety

The purpose of this study was to examine whether athletes of different sports clustered in meaningful ways, based upon their intensity, direction and frequency of cognitive and somatic anxiety using hierarchical cluster analysis, and to compare the subgroups of athletes on trait anxiety, perfectionism and self-confidence. One hundred and sixty six male and female athletes completed the Sport-Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Sport Anxiety Scale and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised including direction and frequency scales. Results revealed five-clusters labelled “anxious facilitators”, “anxious debilitators”, “low anxious facilitators”, “low anxious debilitators” and “ruminator debilitators”. Clusters differed significantly on concentration disruptions, trait somatic anxiety, worry, concern over mistakes, perceived parental pressure, and intensity and frequency of self-confidence. The importance of considering all dimensions of anxiety simultaneously when examining the functional nature of the construct and the five-clusters are discussed.

Effects of Coach and Parent Training on Performance Anxiety in Young Athletes: A Systemic Approach

Coaches and parents play a major role in determining the consequences of sport participation in young athletes. This study focuses on the assessment of a systemic, empirically inspired intervention directed at coaches and parents. Parallel workshops derived in part from achievement goal theory were presented to the coaches and parents of 9 to 15 year old boys and girls participating in community-based basketball programs, and their effects were compared with a matched control condition. Multilevel analyses revealed significant Time x Condition interactions on all three subscales of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2) and on a total anxiety score. Athletes in the intervention condition decreased in cognitive and somatic anxiety scores on the SAS-2, whereas athletes in the control condition exhibited increases in cognitive and somatic anxiety. Results suggest the potential efficacy of brief, economical interventions in enhancing the psychosocial impact of the youth sport environment.

Effects of a Motivational Climate Intervention for Coaches on Young Athletes’ Sport Performance Anxiety

The mastery approach to coaching is a cognitive-behavioral intervention designed to promote a mastery-involving motivational climate, shown in previous research to be related to lower anxiety in athletes. We tested the effects of this intervention on motivational climate and on changes in male and female athletes'cognitive and somatic performance anxiety over the course of a basketball season. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses revealed that the athletes in the intervention condition perceived their coaches as being more mastery-involving on the Motivational Climate Scale for Youth Sports when compared to athletes in an untreated control condition. Relative to athletes who played for untrained coaches, those who played for the trained coaches exhibited decreases on all subscales of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 and on total anxiety score from preseason to late season. Control group athletes reported increases in anxiety over the season. The intervention had equally positive effects on boys and girls teams.

Measurement of Multidimensional Sport Performance Anxiety in Children and Adults: The Sport Anxiety Scale-2

This article describes the development and validation of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS-2), a multidimensional measure of cognitive and somatic trait anxiety in sport performance settings. Scale development was stimulated by findings that the 3-factor structure of the original Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS; Smith, Smoll, &amp; Schutz, 1990) could not be reproduced in child samples and that several items on the scale produced conflicting factor loadings in adult samples. Alternative items having readability levels of grade 4 or below were therefore written to create a new version suitable for both children and adults. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses replicated the original SAS factor structure at all age levels, yielding separate 5-item subscales for Somatic Anxiety, Worry, and Concentration Disruption in samples as young as 9 to 10 years of age. The SAS-2 has stronger factorial validity than the original scale did, and construct validity research indicates that scores relate to other psychological measures as expected. The scale reliably predicts precompetition state anxiety scores and proved sensitive to anxiety-reduction interventions directed at youth sport coaches and parents.

Physical Self-Presentation and Competitive Anxiety in Male Master Divers

This study investigated the link between physical self-presentation and competitive anxiety in male, master-level, high-board divers (N=84, M age = 29.3 yr., SD = 14.3). Competitive trait anxiety, social physique anxiety, and physical self-presentation confidence were assessed using the Sport Anxiety Scale, Social Physique Anxiety Scale, and the Physical Self-presentation inventory. Stepwise regression analyses indicated that variance in competitive anxiety was accounted for by the physical self-presentation variables and that these variables were more strongly associated with the cognitive anxiety subscale Worry, and to a lesser extent, Somatic Anxiety. The results of this study provide support for the argument that physical self-presentation is associated with competitive anxiety in male athletes.

Self-Confidence as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Competitive Anxiety Intensity and Interpretation

The aim of this study was to examine whether self-confidence mediated the relationship between competitive anxiety intensity and direction. Elite (n = 102) and nonelite (n = 144) participants completed the self-confidence subscale of the Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory-2 and the worry and somatic subscales from the Sport Anxiety Scale. Consistent with procedures recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986), linear regression analyses were used. The findings for elite athletes revealed worry intensity to significantly predict self-confidence and worry direction. However, when self-confidence was controlled, worry intensity did not predict worry direction over that which was significantly predicted by self-confidence. Within the analysis for somatic symptoms, only self-confidence was found to predict somatic symptom direction. For the nonelite athletes, worry and somatic symptom intensity predicted both self-confidence and direction, and direction when self-confidence was controlled. The findings for the elite athletes suggest self-confidence mediates the relationship between performers' worry symptoms and subsequent directional interpretations. However, the findings suggest that high levels of self-confidence and low symptom intensity are needed for nonelite athletes to demonstrate a less debilitative interpretation.

Factorial Integrity of the Sport Anxiety Scale: A Methodological Note and Revised Scoring Recommendations

Results of several recent studies have called into question the factorial integrity of the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS; Smith, Smoll, &amp; Schutz, 1990) because two items (14 and 20) that loaded on the Concentration Disruption subscale in our validation and cross-validation samples have loaded or cross-loaded on the Worry subscale in other samples. We agree that this is a serious problem, and we evaluate proposed modifications of the SAS on both conceptual and empirical grounds. For researchers currently using the SAS, we recommend a new scoring system that deletes two troublesome Concentration Disruption items and one Somatic Anxiety item, preserving separate and factorially consistent Somatic, Worry, and Concentration Disruption subscales. We present evidence that our original Worry scale provides a better CFA fit than a suggested “cognitive anxiety” alternative that combines the two concentration disruption items with the Worry scale items. We also describe nonreplication of the SAS three-factor structure in child samples and caution researchers against computing subscale scores for child samples.

An examination of the factorial structure of the Norwegian version of the sport anxiety scale

The purpose of the present research was to develop and validate a Norwegian version of the sport anxiety scale (SAS-N), a multidimensional sport performance trait anxiety inventory. The SAS consists of three unique dimensions measuring somatic anxiety, worry and concentration disruption, respectively. The translation-back translation method was used in development of the SAS-N, and athletes from different sports in Norway (N=282) participated in the study. The findings are similar to those of the English original, and lend support for the use of this instrument with Norwegian athlete subjects.