Sponsoring States Research Articles

Unholy alignment and boomerang civil conflicts: Examining how conflicts beget conflicts through external states support for rebels

ABSTRACT This paper focuses on external state support for rebel movements by developing an analytical tool to explain how external support for rebels leads to civil conflict onset and intensification in the target state and how conflict reverses to the sponsoring state, engendering conflict diffusion and continuation. I present a two-fold argument that a cooperative relationship between external states and rebels triggers the remote causes of civil conflict, translating latent grievances into manifest conflict in the target state. Further, the resulting conflict has a boomerang effect. It has the potential to reverse to the sponsoring state. I do this by using a case studies method – cooperative relationships of governments of Sudan and Chad with each other’s rebels vis-à-vis Sudan Civil War (2000–2005) and Chad Civil War (2005–2010) – to provide a detailed explanation of the framework and its hypotheses. The explanations I offer here may help us understand some African conflict dynamics for us to take some recent developments, for example, in the Great Lakes, more seriously.

Revisiting the “Responsibility to Ensure”: Two-Line Standards of the Sponsoring State’s National Legislation on Deep Seabed Mining

The deep seabed mining regime is composed of international legislation and domestic counterparts. International legislation emanates from the International Seabed Authority (ISA) under the mandate of UNCLOS, which is currently in the accelerated process of being drafted for exploitation activities to meet a deadline of July 2023. In contrast, the development of domestic law in ISA Member States has been relatively slow, and this risks failure to fulfill their obligation of “responsibility to ensure” concluded in the advisory opinion in 2011. This possible failure is partly due to States’ different understanding of their obligation to impose more stringent environmental conditions on contractors in their domestic laws than those specified in the Mining Code adopted by ISA. This paper argues that Annex III, article 21(3) of the UNCLOS requires States to adopt a two-tier approach in their national legislation—minimal and optimal levels. The minimal level requires a sponsoring State to comply with the Mining Code’s fundamental requirements while reaching the optimal level means that the sponsoring State tries its best to establish more stringent standards than the Mining Code. Adopting more stringent requirements may be realized by adopting higher or stricter standards or inserting more details in the national legislation. Moreover, all ISA Member States are, including developing States, obliged to meet the minimum line and encouraged to move towards the optimal one

International Broadcasting During Times of Conflict: A Comparison of China’s and Russia's Communication Strategies

ABSTRACT The vital role of international broadcasting during times of international conflict has gained increasing attention; however, national variations in terms of communication strategies have rarely been explored in depth. This study fills this research gap by providing a comparative analysis of the communication strategies of Chinese and Russian state-sponsored international broadcasters. By examining CGTN’s coverage of the South China Sea arbitration and RT’s coverage of the Ukraine crisis in 2014, we find that the Chinese international broadcaster preferred official Chinese sources and a peace frame during a time of conflict, whereas its Russian counterpart tended to engage with Western countercultural speakers and present conflict frames. We further interpret the two media’s different usage of sources and frames in the light of the media’s organizational culture and the sponsoring states’ national identities. The research advances the scholarship on the increasingly intensive information war between the East and the West through the way international broadcasters cover international conflicts. It enriches our understanding of the cultural and national dynamics underpinning the non-Western emerging countries’ approaches of international communication.

Whose proxy war? The competition among Iranian foreign policy elites in Iraq

ABSTRACT How do state sponsors of proxy groups in civil wars balance their support of non-state militias with the need for political transition towards stability? This article explores the inconsistencies in Iran’s priorities and proxy strategy that at times limited Iranian influence, and complicated Iraq’s transition from war to peace. It expands on current theories on proxy warfare by focusing on the impact of diverging interests among foreign policy elites in a sponsor state. Three policy dilemmas illustrate the difference among on the one side the Revolutionary Guard and on the other side the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Intelligence. First, whether the pro-Iranian proxies should maintain their influence after the war or Iran should strengthen its link to the representatives of the formal state. Second, whether repression by Shia militias or political reconciliation should prevent Sunni Arabs from (re)joining Islamic State. Third, whether Iraq should be part of a sectarian, transnational alliance or an inclusive state that might become an arbiter to deescalate regional tension. The study contributes to the literature on Iranian proxy warfare in the Middle East and proxy warfare literature in general, by considering the consequences of differences among foreign policy elites.

State Support for Rebels and Interstate Bargaining

AbstractSince the end of World War II, leaders have frequently supported rebel groups in other countries as a coercive strategy in international disputes. However, the strategic rationale by which rebel groups gain international support is non‐obvious. Many recipient groups are too weak to viably win and are hostile to the sponsoring state's goals. Using a formal model, I explain that the fundamental objective of transnational rebel support is to gain bargaining leverage against a rival state by depleting its resources to counter internal and external challenges. This subversive effect provides a sufficient incentive for sponsoring the rebels even when favourable conditions suggested by previous studies are absent. Sponsoring rebels is attractive even if conventional warfare is not comparatively costly and even if rebel and sponsor preferences diverge. Moreover, given the goal of destabilizing rival regimes, potential sponsors prefer to support weaker rebel groups and provide more support to them.

Potential Contribution of Sponsoring State and Its National Legislation to the Deep Seabed Mining Regime

Companies and legal persons intending to conduct activities in the Area must be sponsored by a State Party of the UNCLOS, which constitute a “dual-track mechanism” with ISA as a primary regulator and sponsoring state as a secondary regulator. This regime setting places companies and legal persons subject to international and national legislation simultaneously. The sponsoring state’s national legislation is thus an integrated part of the DSM regime. This resolves the defects that private entities in DSM are not subject to international law and weak enforcement of international organizations. However, UNCLOS neither draws a clear line of competence between the sponsoring state and the ISA nor provides compulsory components that national legislation should contain, resulting in the disparity between the objective of the establishment of sponsorship and the status quo of the sponsoring state’s role and its national legislation. This paper analyzes the competence of a sponsoring state and regulatory aspects it should focus on to assist the ISA and further proposes such components of the national legislation contributing to the DSM regime.

Policy factors influencing the establishment of state outdoor recreation offices

The first state-based office of outdoor recreation was established in 2013, and other states took notice. Within six years, thirteen additional states had established outdoor recreation offices – six of which were established in 2019. By applying concepts explored through policy innovation and diffusion theory, this research provides insight into the rapid acceleration of the creation of state outdoor recreation offices. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of policy entrepreneurs and diffusion mechanisms. Specifically, we analyze the potential role of the policy learning, economic competition, and geographic proximity diffusion mechanisms. Data collected from in-depth, semi-structured interviews with state office leadership and non-profit organizations suggest that the policy learning mechanism acts most strongly to drive the establishment of state outdoor recreation offices or similar entities. By creating networks of government agencies focused on outdoor recreation, government officials and outdoor recreation advocates can facilitate further learning about and development of these offices. Management implicationsThis research suggests that the most expedient pathway toward a state outdoor recreation office is through peer-to-peer policy learning. Participation in the National Governors Association Outdoor Recreation Learning Network can help facilitate this policy learning process for state governments. State governments are also encouraged to work directly with a sponsoring state, which is required to sign onto the Confluence Accords. In doing so, states with existing offices can systemically transfer their institutional knowledge to other state governments. While this paper focuses on the outdoor recreation offices themselves, the broader implication is that states with effective outdoor recreation offices are positioned to provide direct, institutional support for expanding outdoor recreation opportunities and their associated economic, social, and environmental benefits. This research focuses on this phenomenon in the United States, however learning networks could facilitate opportunities for learning amongst global governmental agencies looking to support outdoor recreation as well.

Developing China’s Legal Regime for International Deep Seabed Mining—The Present and Future

The obligations of state sponsorship in the exploration and exploitation of the resources in the international seabed area require states parties to the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) to control the exploration and exploitation activities of contractors through domestic legislation and the adoption of relevant administrative measures, and to ensure that contractors comply with UNCLOS and international regulations, rules, and procedures promulgated by the International Seabed Authority. The Law of the People's Republic of China on the Exploration and Exploitation of Resources in the Deep Seabed Area (DSM Law) was adopted on 26 February 2016. It is the first important legislative step that China has taken to fulfill its obligation as a sponsoring state. Given the fact that a number of the provisions in China’s DSM Law are phrased in rather general terms, the next step that China should take is to develop a comprehensive domestic legal regime for deep seabed mining under the DSM Law. Part I of this article provides an overview of China’s developing domestic legal regime for deep seabed mining. Part II proposes three principles that should be enshrined in China’s developing domestic legal regime for deep seabed mining, and Part III articulates the legal norms that underpin China’s developing domestic legal regime for deep seabed mining. Part IV delivers a critical review of current normative instruments issued under the DSM Law and proposes suggestions to revise one particular instrument, the Permit Measures, as adopted under the DSM Law.

On the Legitimacy of National Interests of Sponsoring States: A Deep Sea Mining Conundrum

Abstract Beyond national jurisdiction, the deep seabed and its mineral resources are designated as the ‘common heritage of mankind’. Nevertheless, the governing legal framework does not only consist of international instruments, as domestic legislation issued by sponsoring States also plays a decisive role. The legitimacy of certain national provisions can be questioned though, taking into account the duty to carry out activities in the Area for the benefit of mankind as a whole. For instance, can a sponsoring state demand that the proposed mining activities are in the public interest of the State? Are they allowed to generate revenue by introducing a recovery fee or other taxes? Should developing States enjoy more leeway, given the particular consideration for their interests and needs in the Law of the Sea Convention? This article analyses to what extent creeping national interests in domestic legislation on deep sea mining are in accordance with international law.

The challenges of environmental responsibility of sponsor state for pollution caused by mining in the Area

بسترعمیق دریاها ماورای صلاحیت ملی دولتها سرشار از منابع غنی معدنی است. افزایش نیاز به مواد معدنی سبب شده تا بسیاری از کشورها با هدف رفع نیازهای صنعتی خود، به کاوش و بهره برداری از منابع معدنی منطقه بپردازند اما هزینه بالای معدنکاوی سبب می شود تا دولتها از طریق انعقاد قرار دادهایی با پیمانکاران تحت حمایت خویش، اغلب در جایگاه دولت فعالیت کنند. عدم شناخت جامع از محیط زیست منطقه، احتمال آلودگی ها و آسیب های زیست محیطی ناشی از معدنکاوی را افزایش می دهد کنوانسیون 1982 حقوق دریاها و نظامنامه های مصوب مقام با هدف حفاظت از محیط زیست منطقه، مقرراتی را در چارچوب ایجاد تعهدات زیست محیطی و جبران خسارت وضع نموده که نقض آنها منتهی به مسئولیت بین المللی دولت حامی می شود. با توجه به شناسایی منطقه به عنوان میراث مشترک بشریت مساله اساسی این است که آیا نظام مسئولیت پیش بینی شده در کنوانسیون و نظام نامه های مرتبط نظامی جامع و کامل برای حفاظت از محیط زیست منطقه محسوب می شود یا خیر. در مقاله ی حاضر تلاش شده است با رویکردی توصیفی - تحلیلی و باتکیه بر اسناد بین المللی ، ابعاد مختلف مسئولیت بین المللی دولت حامی ، نقد و بررسی گردد.

The Next Step of Devising China's Legal Regime for Deep Seabed Mining—The Environmental Regulation under China's Deep Seabed Mining Law

ABSTRACTThe due diligence obligation of sponsoring states requires state parties to enact laws and take administrative measures to secure effective regulation of the contractors of deep seabed mining and ensure that the contractors comply with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and regulations issued by International Seabed Authority (ISA). China has invested significantly in the exploration and exploitation of the deep seabed resources in the Area and China enacted its deep seabed mining law (DSM Law) in 2016 to fulfill its due diligence obligation as a sponsoring state. Environmental regulation is an important part of devising the international legal regime of deep seabed mining, and the ISA has been in the process of drafting Environmental Regulations. It is the sponsoring states' obligation to ensure that the contractors comply with the environmental rules issued by the ISA. China's DSM Law has many provisions stating the environmental obligations of its contractors; however, these provisions are phrased in rather general terms. It is necessary for China to take the next step as a sponsoring state and promulgate its domestic environmental regulation under its DSM Law in order to further fulfill its due diligence obligation. A procedure-oriented approach should be adopted for drafting the environmental regulation under China's DSM Law. Ideally, the environmental regulation under China's DSM Law should specify the rights and obligations of the contractors and domestic regulatory agency, delineating the environmental measures that the contractors need to take in different stages of exploring and exploiting deep seabed resources in order to comply with the environmental rules issued by the ISA.

Do Private Schools Manage Better?

There is a perception among some commentators and policy analysts that leadership and managerial practices in private schools are superior to those in state schools. Analysing a survey of workplaces in Britain, we find little evidence to support this contention when examining the prevalence of modern human resource management (HRM) practices in schools. Rather, the evidence points to greater use of such practices in state schools. Those practices are correlated with improved school performance in the state sector, but not in the private sector. We discuss the implications of these findings for the policy of encouraging managers of private schools to sponsor state schools.

Do Private Schools Manage Better?

There is a perception among some commentators and policy analysts that leadership and managerial practices in private schools are superior to those in state schools. Analysing a survey of workplaces in Britain, we find little evidence to support this contention when examining the prevalence of modern human resource management (HRM) practices in schools. Rather, the evidence points to greater use of such practices in state schools. Those practices are correlated with improved school performance in the state sector, but not in the private sector. We discuss the implications of these findings for the policy of encouraging managers of private schools to sponsor state schools.

SWEAT THE SMALL STUFF: STRATEGIC SELECTION OF PENSION POLICIES USED TO DEFER REQUIRED CONTRIBUTIONS

The administrators of state‐sponsored defined benefit public pension plans have considerable discretion to determine the accounting and actuarial parameters used to calculate the normal cost contributions and amortization payments that, together, comprise the sponsoring state's annual required contribution amount. Using longitudinal data from the Public Pension Database and a fixed effects approach, we find evidence that suggests plan administrators decisions about cost and amortization methods are influenced by the normal cost and amortization payments, respectively. When these costs increase, administrators tend to use less prudent methods that defer, or keep low, the pension contributions required from the state while, simultaneously, and perversely, improving the appearance of the plan's funded status and the state's funding discipline. (JEL H75)

The Responsibilities and Obligations of the Sponsoring States Advisory Opinion

The Responsibilities and Obligations of the Sponsoring States Advisory Opinion

심해저활동에 대한 보증국의 의무와 책임에 관한 고찰

On February 11, 2011, upon request of International Seabed Authority, the Seabed Dispute Chamber of International Tribunal for Law of Sea(henceforth Chamber) rendered its advisory opinion on responsibilities and obligations of States sponsoring persons and entities with respect to activities in Area. The advisory opinion covered three questions: What are legal responsibilities and obligations of sponsoring states with respect to sponsorship of activities in Area? What is extent of liability of a State Party for any failure to comply with LOS Convention and relevant instruments? What are necessary and appropriate measures that a sponsoring State must take in order to fulfil its responsibilities? In particular, Chamber delivered its opinion on different responsibilities and obligations of developed and developing sponsoring states. This paper reviews above three questions through analyzing advisory opinion and makes some recommendations for fulfillment of responsibilities and obligations of Korea as a sponsoring states.

Seabed Disputes Chamber of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea: Responsibilities and obligations of states sponsoring persons and entities with respect to activities in the Area * ADVISORY OPINION

The present Case Analysis seeks to discuss the main points of the Advisory Opinion of the Seabed Disputes Chamber of the International Tribunal of the Law of the Sea on the Responsibilities and obligations of states, sponsoring persons and entities with respect to activities in the Area. The Opinion addresses a number of important issues that range from the analysis of the environmental obligations of states under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea to the analysis of the due diligence criterion in the context of the activities in the Area. All of these significant issues are discussed in the analysis. The Advisory Opinion is important in the sense that the Seabed Disputes Chamber did indeed answer in great detail all of the questions the Council of the International Seabed Authority posed. The result will certainly help to develop a better understanding of the sponsoring states’ obligations with respect to the Area.

The Return of Zheng He? An Assessment of Chinese Sovereign Wealth Fund from a Law & Development Perspective

This paper addresses People’s Republic of China (PRC) participation to the international economic order by focusing on its sovereign wealth fund (SWF), China Investment Corporation (CIC), in order to assess whether PRC attitude towards law is heavily skewed towards the unique goal of economic development – whether this law is domestic or international. After providing an overview of the phenomenon of SWFs as a whole and a description of the most significant features of CIC, the paper puts the latter in the broader context of the sweeping economic and legal reforms carried out by PRC in the past thirty years in order to show the mission CIC has been entrusted and the legal tools it has been endowed to that end. I endeavor to show that, just like PRC has successfully built ex novo its domestic legal system with the purpose of promoting economic growth, the same behavior is traceable also for international law, once the ‘domestic use’ of international legal order by PRC is recalled. With some caveats, the specific issues posed by CIC as SWF seem to be another proof of this general finding, once the possible short-circuits within international legal order affecting SWFs are considered. As a matter of policy, it is advisable that any response by recipient countries of CIC investments to any perceived ‘threat’ from them insist on international cooperation with the sponsor State, better bilateral rather multilateral, especially for the US. This concerted response is necessary not only to make it effective dealing with SWFs issues generally but also to avoid dangerous backlashes that could jeopardize Chinese economic growth and, as a repercussion, U.S. and global economic outlooks alike.

The age of Web diplomacy: Exploration of international broadcasting online

This paper examines the Web sites of 10 international broadcasters targeting Arabic speaking audiences in the Middle East. Data from 2006 and 2009 are used to compare the formal features of the sites, mainly domain names, hyperlinks and type of news stories presented on the sites. The empirical analysis uncovers a rough typology of international broadcasters in the Middle East. The first category refers to international broadcasters that position their institutions as alternative media voices in the targeted regional media market. The second category of international broadcasters perceives their role as information sources about their sponsoring states, functioning like a “tourist” pamphlet. The study charts future research prospects on international broadcasting in the age of the Internet, how these efforts could be harvested in public diplomacy enterprises.

Extra-Systemic Conflict as a System Steering Solution: A Habermasian Analysis of State Sponsorship for Insurgency Movements

This article attempts to forward an alternative theoretical explanation of insurgency sponsorship to standard realist and neo-realist explanations for international violence. While not discounting issues of security and power, this study points out that ‘extra-rational’ motivations often lead states to sponsor violent movements in target states, even if this decision has no or negative effects on the sponsor state's security. Furthermore, extra-rational explanations, such as revenge, prestige or ideology typically lead to conflicts of greater violence and duration.