Sponge Growth Research Articles

Reconstructing early sponge relationships by using the Burgess Shale fossil Eiffelia globosa, Walcott.

The relationships of the sponge classes are controversial, particularly between the calcareous and siliceous sponges. Specimens of the putative calcarean Eiffelia globosa Walcott from the Burgess Shale show the presence of diagnostic hexactinellid spicules integrated into the skeletal mesh. The arrangement of these spicules in Eiffelia is shown to be precisely equivalent to that of early protospongioid hexactinellids, and sponge growth occurred through an identical pattern to produce identical skeletal body morphology. The difference in spicule composition of the classes is interpreted through the observation of taphonomic features of Eiffelia that suggest the presence of at least two mineralogically distinct layers within the spicules. These results support molecular analyses that identify the calcarean-silicisponge transition as the earliest major sponge branch and suggest that the heteractinids were paraphyletic with respect to the Hexactinellida.

Storm-mediated coral colonization by an excavating Caribbean sponge

The broken, dead stands of the Caribbean elkhorn coral Acropora palmata, which suf- fered massive mortalities from disease and bleaching during the early 1980s, are now widely covered by Cliona tenuis, an encrusting and excavating brown sponge (Hadromerida, Clionaidae). This sponge displaces live coral tissue by undermining the polypal skeletal support. On the windward fringing reef of Islas del Rosario (Colombian Caribbean), 26% of C. tenuis individuals currently dwelling on live corals had colonized their host from sponge-carrying branches of A. palmata thrown against the corals during storms. Times of initial colonization were traced back from sponge growth rates in a few marked massive coral colonies and found to coincide approximately with hurricanes that had affected the area. Transplantation experiments confirmed that C. tenuis is able to spread to new coral hosts from attached fragments. The extent of C. tenuis dispersion via branching coral frag- ments and further massive coral colonization is now evident and, given that C. tenuis-encrusted A. palmata fragments are becoming progressively smaller, the phenomenon is likely to increase. C. tenuis was also found undermining encrusting and foliose corals settled on dead A. palmata branches, thus also retarding the process of reef recovery to an unknown degree.

In vitro culture of the tropical sponge Axinella corrugata (Demospongiae): effect of food cell concentration on growth, clearance rate, and biosynthesis of stevensine.

In vitro culture is one possible method for supplying sponge metabolites for pharmaceutical applications, but appropriate feeding regimens that maximize both growth and metabolite biosynthesis are largely unknown. According to the natural concentration (NC) of cells 1 to 50 micro m in size that are available to wild Axinella corrugata, we fed explants a multispecific diet of bacteria, microalgae, and yeast at 4 different concentrations: 1NC, 3NC, 5NC, and 5+1NC (the last consisted of 5 NC of bacteria and 1 NC of microalgae and yeast). Explants fed a 3NC diet had the best culture response, growing on average from 8.5 g to 10.3 g in 8 weeks, and showing a 110% increase in concentration (milligrams per gram of dry weight) of the antitumor compound stevensine. Stevensine production in 3NC explants, representing the total milligrams of metabolite per explant, increased by 157% over the study. Explants fed at 1NC had relatively stable weights, indicating that the diet met metabolic costs only. Explants fed at the two highest concentrations lost weight after 4 weeks, possibly because long-term high cell concentration blocked their aquiferous system, reducing their ability to feed efficiently. Stevensine production in explants fed the 1NC, 5NC, or 5+1NC diets were similar, and varied little from the initial amount. A separate experiment showed that the clearance rate for A. corrugata is similar between the examined food types and cell concentrations over 5 hours, averaging 766 ml h(-1) g DW(-1).Overall, this study demonstrates that relatively small changes in food abundance can greatly affect both sponge growth and metabolite biosynthesis. The good growth and increased production of the target metabolite stevensine for A. corrugata explants fed a 3NC diet suggests that in vitro culture is a viable method of supplying some sponge metabolites.

Sublethal effects of contamination on the Mediterranean sponge Crambe crambe: metal accumulation and biological responses

The effect of low levels of pollution on the growth, reproduction output, morphology and survival of adult sponges and settlers of the sponge Crambe crambe were examined. We transplanted sponges from a control area to a contaminated site and measured the main environmental variables (chemical and physical) of both sites during the study period. Except some punctual differences in particulate organic matter, silicates, nitrates, and water motion, most environmental variables in the water were similar at both sites during the study months. Mainly copper, lead and OM concentrations in the sediment, and water motion were significantly higher at the polluted site and may be implicated in the biological effects observed: decrease in the percentage of specimens with embryos, increase in shape irregularity and decrease in growth rate. Individuals naturally occurring at the polluted site and those transplanted there for four months accumulated ten times more copper than either untouched or transplant controls. Although lead concentration in sediment did not differ between sites, native specimens from the contaminated site accumulated this metal more than untouched controls. Vanadium concentration also tended to increase in the sponges living at or transplanted to the contaminated site but this difference was not significant. C. crambe is a reliable indicator of metal contamination since it accumulates copper, lead and vanadium in high amounts. At the contaminated site, sponge growth, fecundity and survival were inhibited, whereas sponge irregularity ending in sponge fission was promoted. All these effects may compromise the structure and dynamics of the sponge populations in sheltered, metal-contaminated habitats.

Growth patterns of Lower Palaeozoic sponges

Detailed studies of the growth patterns of modern siliceous sponges are restricted to demosponges and theoretical models. It is generally assumed that sponge growth is essentially incremental, with completion of one arbitrary unit being followed by external addition. All recent species are thick-walled, but Lower Palaeozoic sponges are dominated by thin-walled hexactinellids, with most Cambrian taxa consisting of a single spicule layer. Large populations of a primitive dictyospongiid have allowed the reconstruction of the growth patterns of their spicules and body morphology. The results indicate that growth occurred through continuous expansion of the globose body, accompanied by continuous enlargement of existing spicules, with a spicule size limit being reached only during the lifetime of a few individuals. It is noted that this skeletal growth pattern is otherwise restricted to deuterostomes. Consecutive appearance of successive spicule size orders appears to have maintained a maximum inhalant pore area. Comparisons with more limited data from two acanthose hexactinellids and a hazeliid demosponge indicate that an identical growth pattern operated in these species. The subsequent evolution of growth patterns is discussed, with various mechanisms producing the later thick-walled morphologies of hexactinellids and demosponges. The implications of these observations are discussed with reference to identification and systematics, since spicule size and arrangement are shown to vary during growth.

Early Cambrian coelobiontic communities in tectonically unstable crevices developed in Neoproterozoic andesites, Ossa‐Morena, southern Spain

A well-preserved biota of Lower Cambrian cavity-dwelling organisms is recorded within fissures in Neoproterozoic andesites in Ossa-Morena (southern Spain). The cavities are unique among described Lower Cambrian coelobiontic communities due to the igneous character of the host rock. Coelobiontic habitat was episodically enlarged by synsedimentary tectonic fracturing reflecting polyphase infill of recurrent facies. The pioneer coelobiontic biota was diverse, and consisted of encrusting stromatolites and thromboids (dominated by Epiphyton and Renalcis), attached to walls and ceilings of the cavities, associated with archaeocyaths. Sponge spicules and chancelloriid sclerites occur as dense clusters indicating in situ growth, death and decay of spiculate sponges and coeloscleritophorans. Other organisms, such as echinoderms, trilobites and brachiopods, are also found within the cavities as reworked skeletons, indicating that they were washed in from the overlying, open seafloor. The main feature of the coelobiontic biota is the dominance of a sessile, chemosynthetic and filter-feeding epibenthos, composed of microbial communities, archaeocyaths, spiculate sponges (demosponges and rarer hexactinellides) and coeloscleritophorans.

Sponge aquaculture for the production of biologically active metabolites: the influence of farming protocols and environment

Before sponge aquaculture is accepted as a commercially viable method of supplying bioactive metabolites, it must be demonstrated that adequate production of sponge biomass and metabolite is possible. In this study, we farmed the New Zealand Demospongiae Latrunculia wellingtonensis (Alvarez, Bergquist and Battershill) and Polymastia croceus (Kelly-Borges and Bergquist) for 9 months at two nearby locations with differing flow rates using two farming methods: rope lines and suspended mesh arrays. The farmed explants were harvested at regular intervals over the 9 months by cutting and removing new biomass, leaving behind the original explant “core” to heal and regrow. For both species, explants grew as water temperature increased and shrunk as water temperature fell, and growth was greatest overall at the location with the greatest flow rate. Some treatments exhibited remarkable sponge growth (up to 960% in 6 months), with overall biomass yields double or greater the initial transplanted weight. Growth after harvesting was similar between harvested and nonharvested explants, indicating that healing of cut biomass and reorganization of the canal system is not a significant drain on resources. Bioactivity of farmed sponges (measure of bioactive metabolite biosynthesis) was similar or greater than found in natural populations. Both rope and mesh arrays were found to be good farming structures, but differing patterns of growth and survival indicated that the two arrays are most suited for a particular type of sponge depending on its skeletal structure.

Silica deposition in demosponges.

Demosponges are the most widespread class of the phylum Porifera. They secrete siliceous (spicules) and proteinaceous (fibers) elements, which constitute the skeleton that shapes the sponge growth and allow cell organization and establishment of the aquiferous system through which the surrounding water accesses the internal cells.KeywordsMarine SpongeSponge SpiculeFreshwater SpongeSilica DepositionAxial CanalThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Palaeogeographical influence on Late Eocene biosiliceous sponge‐rich sedimentation, southern Western Australia

Late Eocene nearshore shallow‐marine environments within the Bremer and western Eucla Basins of southern Western Australia were characterized by the thick deposition of spongolite and spiculite deposits. Epibenthic sponge communities dominated estuaries and topographically complex basin margin embayments‐archipelagos, while cool‐water carbonates with up to 10% sponges accumulated in open‐shelf environments. The transition from a biosiliceous to calcareous epibenthos was related to the degree of palaeogeographical ‘protection’. Within basement‐protected embayments there was an offshore gradation from shoreface spongolite and pure spiculite to a muddy spiculite facies towards central embayment areas. Calcareous fossils are rare throughout embayment facies, but rapidly increase in more open outer archipelago areas. This depositional relationship occurred along 2000 km of the Late Eocene southern Australian coastline. Palaeogeographical protection from strong currents acted in concert with: (1) a planar, low‐gradient inland topography with sluggish run‐off, supplying fine‐grained sediment, nutrients, and abundant dissolved silica; and (2) a microtidal setting, weak to moderate swells and opposing wind and Coriolis surface current forcing, which inhibited water exchange between embayments‐estuaries and the open shelf. This situation led to an embayment water chemistry that encouraged prolific sponge growth. Calcareous spiculites record the mixing front between these embayment waters and normal open‐shelf waters supporting cool‐water carbonates.

The fractal branching of an arborescent sponge

The fractal properties of specimens of a planar branching sponge Raspailia inaequalis (Porifera, Demospongiae) were determined by analysing digitised photographs. The specimens, collected from a single site in northeastern New Zealand, had a wide range of morphology. Three different fractal methods were used: box counting; a method that gives the scaling of branch length with distance from the base of the fan; and an allometric analysis of the dependence of frontal area on specimen size. All three approaches gave a similar value for the fractal dimension. The conjecture that the specimens have a fractal branching structure is consistent with the results of a Horton analysis of their branching pattern. There is a significant relationship between fractal dimension and number of fingers, which implies that a simple count of the number of fingers is as useful for discriminating between individuals as the more complex fractal analysis. Using this relation, sponges from a site with less water movement are inferred to have a lower fractal dimension. This result is in agreement with the predictions of the Kaandorp model of sponge growth.

The Effects of Sponge (Porifera) Biofouling on Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) Fitness: Reduction of Glycogen, Tissue Loss, and Mortality

ABSTRACT The effects of freshwater sponge (Porifera) overgrowth on the fitness of adult zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) were examined in East Chicago and Michigan City, Indiana harbors in southern Lake Michigan. There was significant reduction in glycogen content of sponge-covered zebra mussel soft tissue wet weight (mean=2.6%) when compared to the non sponge-covered population (mean=3.9%). Similarly, the soft tissue wet weight of sponge-covered zebra mussels (15 to 25 mm size class) was lower when compared to non-covered mussels. A comparison of the live:dead ratios of zebra mussels in both populations showed overgrowth by sponges had a significant lethal effect. These data suggest that the epibiont growth of freshwater sponges on adult zebra mussel shells negatively impacts the growth and survivability of zebra mussels.

Allelopathic activities of sponge extracts

Although there is anecdotal evidence for allelopathic interactions between benthic invertebrates engaged in spatial competition, only a few studies have established the involvement of chemical agents in field experiments. We have developed a technique in which crude organic extracts of marine sponges were incorporated into hard, stable gels that serve as a substratum for overgrowth by invertebrates in the field. Overgrowth organisms were secured to the center of assay plates and allowed to grow laterally over control gels and gels containing a crude organic sponge extract that was volumetrically equivalent to the concentration found in sponge tissues. Extracts of 20 species of Caribbean sponges were assayed in Florida using 3 overgrowth sponges: Tedania ignis, Lissodendoryx isodictialis, and Haliclona hogarthi. In addition, extracts of the sponge Aplysilla longispina were assayed in North Carolina using the tunicate Diplosoma listerianum as the over- growth organism. The allelopathic effects varied between extracts of different sponge species, but were consistent across overgrowth organisms. Of the sponge extracts tested, 30% inhibited sponge growth (Amphimedon compressa, Aplysilla longispina, Aplysina cauliformis, Dysidea etheria, Ectyo- plasia ferox, and Phorbas amaranthus), while 15% promoted overgrowth (Agelas wiedenmeyeri, Geodia gibberosa, and Halichondria sp.). The remaining 55% of sponge extracts had no effect on sponge growth. The technique described herein represents a more ecologically relevant method than past techniques for assaying the allelopathic properties of extracts of marine organisms. Moreover, this study provides evidence that sponge metabolites may act as allomones by preventing overgrowth of some sponge species, and as both allomones and kairomones by enhancing overgrowth of others.

Differential contribution of bradykinin receptors in angiogenesis.

Bradykinin (BK) contributes to the inflammatory response inducing vasodilation of postcapillary venules and has been demonstrated to induce neovascular growth in subcutaneous rat sponges. In this study the ability of BK to stimulate cell growth and migration in cultured endothelium from coronary postcapillary venules (CVEC) has been investigated. BK promotes growth of endothelial cells and its mitogenic activity involves c-Fos expression. Only the Bl receptor appears to be responsible for the proliferation induced by BK and suggests that this type of receptor might be implicated in favouring angiogenesis of coronary venules. Phospholipase C (PLC) activation and the endogenous upregulation of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) were monitored in response to Bl and B2 receptor activation. BK-induced IP turnover was triggered by B2 activation, while NOS activation was linked to the Bl receptor. NOS inhibition in CVEC prevented BK/B1 induced cell growth. These results substantiate the protective and trophic role of BK on microvascular endothelium by demonstrating that Bl receptor stimulation on venular endothelium is mandatory for the angiogenic effect of BK through its coupling to NOS activation.KeywordsEndothelial Cell ProliferationPostcapillary VenuleBradykinin ReceptorVenular EndotheliumInositol MonophosphateThese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Lake Michigan sponge phosphatic metabolite variations with habitat: a 31P nuclear magnetic resonance study

The 31P NMR phosphatic profile of the sponge Eunapius fragilis differs considerably from profiles obtained from vertebrate tissues: phosphonic acids, glycan phosphates, and phosphoarginine are present in the sponge profile. Ethanolamine phosphate, a family of phosphodiesters, dinucleotides, and a family of pyrimidine-nucleotide-activated co-factors are elevated, while nucleoside monophosphates, inorganic orthophosphate, and nucleoside triphosphates are diminished with respect to vertebrate tissues. The profile contains 26 different phosphatic metabolite resonance bands, and all but one of these (phosphonates) can be used to differentiate among three southern Lake Michigan sponge habitats examined: a coastal lagoon; the shipwreck of the Material Service Barge in the open waters of Lake Michigan; and an industrial section of the Calumet River. The quantitative phosphatic metabolite concentration data, in conjunction with numerical indexes derived therefrom, demonstrate that, in analogy to sponge phospholipid profiling, 31P NMR phosphatic metabolites can be utilized to distinguish among habitats using a single species as a bioindicator. For the sponge, energy reserves are concentrated in nucleotide co-factors rather than nucleoside triphosphates. High concentrations of ethanolamine and choline phosphate intermediates are present suggesting that metabolic pathways leading to phospholipid biosynthesis are primed for rapid membrane biosynthesis leading to subsequent sponge growth.

Aquaculture of sponges on scallops for natural products research and antifouling

Suspended culture of scallops (Pectinidae: Bivalvia) is plagued by invertebrate fouling. Scallops covered in an orange sponge ( Suberites ficus ssp. rubrus), however, do not have any other invertebrates fouling their shells and the sponge is easily removed. Sponges may also be valuable sources of bioactive compounds. Seven species of sponge were found to be associated with Chlamys opercularis but none were found associated with Pecten maximus. Standing crop of sponge on the scallop farm was just over one tonne. If all the scallops were covered by sponge this would rise to approximately 4.5 tonnes (from three million scallops). Primary cell cultures of ( S.f. rubrus) were successfully established but no cell lines were achieved. A number of techniques were tried for establishing cells and pieces of sponge tissue onto scallop shells but none gave satisfactory results. Likewise mechanical methods for sticking small pieces of sponge to scallop shells were deemed impractical even where they resulted in subsequent sponge growth. Improving natural settlement of sponges onto the scallops was the only economically practical method for increasing sponge yield for C. opercularis, though other methods would need to be devised for P. maximus.

B1 receptor involvement in the effect of bradykinin on venular endothelial cell proliferation and potentiation of FGF-2 effects.

1. Bradykinin (BK) contributes to the inflammatory response inducing vasodilation of postcapillary venules and has been demonstrated to induce neovascular growth in subcutaneous rat sponges. 2. In this study the ability of BK to stimulate cell growth and migration in cultured endothelium from coronary postcapillary venules (CVEC) has been investigated. 3. [3H]-thymidine incorporation in subconfluent and synchronised CVEC was used to monitor DNA synthesis over 24 h. BK promoted a concentration-dependent increase of DNA synthesis with maximal activity at 100 nM. At this concentration BK also induced 18 fold accumulation of c-Fos protein immunoreactivity in the nucleus within 1 h from peptide exposure. 4. The total number of cells recovered after 48 h exposure to BK was increased in a concentration-dependent manner. Maximal effect was produced by 100 nM concentration of the peptide which produced 50% increase in cell number. The selective B1 receptor agonist Des-Arg9-BK mimicked the proliferative effect of BK, while the B2 receptor agonist kallidin was devoid of any activity. The proliferation induced by BK was abolished in a concentration-dependent manner by the addition of the B1 selective antagonist Des-Arg9-Leu8-BK, while the selective B2 receptor antagonist HOE140 did not modify BK-induced growth. 5. DNA synthesis and growth promoted by a threshold concentration of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) (0.25 nM) were potentiated by increasing concentrations of BK and Des-Arg9-BK. 6. Endothelial cell migration assessed by the Boyden Chamber procedure was not promoted by BK or the selective B1 and B2 receptor agonists. 7. These data are the first demonstration that BK promotes growth of endothelial cells from postcapillary venules. The mitogenic activity of BK involves c-Fos expression and potentiates the growth promoting effect of FGF-2. Only the B1 receptor appears to be responsible for the proliferation induced by BK and suggests that this type of receptor might be implicated in favouring angiogenesis of coronary venules.

Water flow over subtidal rock walls: relation to distributions and growth rates of sessile suspension feeders in the Gulf of Maine Water flow and growth rates

Moving water delivers food resources to sessile suspension feeding invertebrates and the interaction between water motion and substrate topography may dramatically influence the ecology of these animals. Growth rates of two species of sessile suspension feeders were compared between positions within individual 1.5-m high rock walls at an offshore site at 30-m depth in the Gulf of Maine, USA. The site is characterized by strong, highly variable water flow. Growth rates for the active suspension feeding mussel Mytilus edulis (Linnaeus), were greater at upper than at lower wall positions, while growth rates for the facultatively-active suspension feeding sponge Halichondria panicea (Pallas) showed the opposite pattern, with higher rates at lower than upper wall positions. Mussel and sponge growth rates were related both to patterns of bulk fluid flux across the walls and to naturally occurring distributions of sessile suspension feeders. Dissolution of alabaster and plaster solids indicated that upper wall positions experienced significantly higher bulk fluid flux than lower wall positions. Distribution data show non-random suspension feeder abundances across a series of small rock walls at two offshore sites. The abundance of passive suspension feeders was greatest near the top edges, while active and facultatively-active suspension feeders occur in greatest densities at lower wall positions. The results show that the interaction of small scale, abrupt, topographic features with variable local flow conditions can lead to physical gradients within rock walls. These gradients significantly affect the growth of suspension feeders, and may influence the structure sessile of invertebrate communities on subtidal rock walls.

Swelling and growth of polymers, membranes, and sponges.

Polymers can be formed into a wide range of structures depending on the monomer chemistry and the kinetic conditions of growth. A general model of polymers having higher-order connectivity is introduced that reduces to flexible linear polymers, membranes, and sponges as special cases. This ``Wiener sheet'' model, which extends the conventional Wiener path model of linear polymers, is argued to describe various classes of branched polymers, as well as different types of interacting random surfaces. For example, lattice animals and percolation clusters are considered to be perforated sheets whose large-scale dimensions are described by the Wiener sheet model with excluded volume interactions. To within the approximations of the model calculations, the properties of the Wiener sheet ``membrane'' are consistent with this correspondence. The influence of the excluded volume and the kinetics of growth of membrane and sponge structures are treated at a Flory-level approximation, although the Wiener sheet model should admit to a renormalization-group treatment as in the case of linear polymers. Predictions of the self-interacting Wiener sheet model are contrasted with an alternative and complementary random surface model introduced by Nelson and co-workers and are compared with recent simulations and experiment.

New Records of Freshwater Sponges (Porifera) for Southern Lake Michigan

Four species of freshwater sponge were identified in southern Lake Michigan: Spongilla lacustris (Linneaus), Eunapius fragilis (Leidy), Ephydatia fluviatilis (Linneaus), and Ephydatia muelleri (Lieberkuhn). Samples were collected from artificial substrates in Calumet (IL), Hammond (IN), and Michigan City (IN) harbors and represent the first reports of sponges in these waters. Numerical densities for all species combined were as high as 698 sponge colonies/m 2 on the iron hull of the permanently moored 110-m-long ship Milwaukee Clipper in Hammond Harbor. These densities were lowest at 1-m depth and greater at 2- and 3-m depths. A positive correlation (r 2 = 0.74) was found between the density of sponge colonies and the angle of the hull as it changed from near vertical at the water line to overhanging at greater depth (toward the keel). Ephydatia muelleri was the most common species based on frequency of occurrence and percent surface area covered. Observations of epizoic growth of sponges on live zebra mussels ( Dreissena polymorpha Pallas) suggest that an ecological interaction exists between these two groups of organisms on these artificial substrates.

Lethal and sublethal effects of sponge overgrowth on introduced dreissenid mussels in the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence River system

Freshwater sponges in the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence River system overgrow and kill introduced zebra (Dreissena polymorpha) and quagga mussels (Dreissena bugensis) on solid substrates. Sponges overgrow and smother mussel siphons, thereby interfering with normal feeding and respiration. We tested the significance of sponge-enhanced mussel mortality by repeated sampling at several sites where both organisms were abundant in the upper St. Lawrence River and on an artificial reef in central Lake Erie. A small proportion (<10%) of the dreissenid population at each site was overgrown by sponge. Mussel colonies that were completely overgrown for 1 or more months invariably contained a significantly greater proportion of dead mussels than local uncovered populations. Mussels that survived prolonged periods (4–6 months) of overgrowth suffered significant tissue weight losses. Laboratory experiments and field observations suggest that dreissenids are not able to colonize sponges; therefore, sponges should always dominate competitive overgrowth situations. The overall impact of sponges on dreissenid populations in the Great Lakes – St. Lawrence River system will probably be negligible because of the high rate of mussel recruitment and the environmental constraints on sponge growth; however, our results suggest that sponges may control mussel abundance locally.