Spiny Shrub Research Articles

Indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan

Aim of studyEthnomedicinal studies were conducted first time in the Leepa Valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), Pakistan to document indigenous medicinal knowledge of most common plant species. Pakistan is diverse country by possessing a wide range of climatic and geological condition; this country also has a mammoth diversity of flora. Material and methodsRapid appraisal approach, semi-structured interviewees, personal observations and field work guided by local informants having sufficient knowledge of indigenous medicinal plants were employed to acquire ethnomedicinal information. ResultsIn this study 61 medicinal plants belonging to 40 families have been reported through 705 informants (267 females, 393 males and 45 herbal specialists) from 17 sites of Leepa valley. The main sources of herbal medicines were wild herbs (64%) followed by trees (10%), wild shrubs (8%), cultivated herbs (3%), wild and cultivated herbs (3%), wild grasses (3%), climbing wild herbs (2%), prostate wild herbs (2%), spiny shrubs (2%), fungi (2%) and ferns (1%). The most repeatedly used plant parts were leaves (34%) followed by root (16%), seed (10%), shoot (9%), fruit (8%), flower (8%), bark (6%), whole plant (4%) and barriers, tubers, nuts, oil, milky latex (1%). Preparations of medicinal plants were administrated through oral and topical routs. ConclusionLeepa Valley is wealthy in its indigenous medicinal plants species and the allied traditional knowledge. Indigenous medicines play important role in the local healthcare system. Most of the local community prefers to use the traditional herbal preparation for against ailments. This is the first record of indigenous knowledge from this area and there is dare need for more studies to authenticate traditional plants used in herbal remedies of study area.

Bioactive polyphenols in Ximenia americana and the traditional use among Malian healers

Ethnopharmacological relevanceXimenia americana is a medicinal bushy, spiny shrub or small tree used in Mali in West Africa for treatment of various diseases, most common are infectious and inflammatory ailments. Aims of the study(1) To perform an ethnopharmacological survey on the traditional use of Ximenia americana among healers in Mali. (2) To isolate and identify chemical constituents from the ethanol extract of Ximenia americana leaves and to study their radical scavenging and enzyme inhibitory effects. Materials and methodsIn five different districts in Mali, 38 healers were interviewed about their medicinal use of Ximenia americana. An aqueous ethanol extract of the leaves of this tree was prepared and further fractionated with liquid-liquid extraction, VersaFlash and Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography, and preparative HPLC. Isolated compounds were identified by 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy. Extracts, subfractions and isolated compounds were investigated as DPPH radical scavengers and as inhibitors of xanthine oxidase and 15-lipoxygenase. ResultsMajor areas of use by Malian healers were against throat infection, amenorrhea and as tonic. Fractionation of the ethanol extract led to the isolation and identification of the cyanogenic glycoside sambunigrin (1), which is previously known from the plant. Additionally, gallic acid (2) and the gallotannins β-glucogalline (3) and 1,6-digalloyl-β-glucopyranose (4) were found. The following flavonoids were isolated: quercetin (5), quercitrin (quercetin-3-O-α-rhamnopyranoside) (6), avicularin (quercetin-3-O-α-arabinofuranoside) (7), quercetin-3-O-β-xylopyranoside (8), quercetin-3-O-(6″-galloyl)-β-glucopyranoside (9) and kaempferol-3-O-(6″-galloyl)-β-glucopyranoside (10). The flavonoids were active both as enzyme inhibitors and DPPH radical scavengers. ConclusionSambunigrin (1) was the main compound in the EtOAc soluble fraction of the alcoholic extract of Ximenia americana leaves. Gallic acid (2), gallotannins (3–4) and flavonoids (5–10) were identified for the first time in the genus Ximenia. The identified compounds may give a rationale for the traditional use of Ximenia americana in Mali. Healers interviewed reported the use against throat infections, amenorrhea, as tonic, for wound healing and against pain.

A review on Balanites aegyptiaca Del (desert date): phytochemical constituents, traditional uses, and pharmacological activity

Balanites aegyptiaca Del. (Zygophyllaceae), known as ‘desert date,’ is spiny shrub or tree up to l0 m tall, widely distributed in dry land areas of Africa and South Asia. It is traditionally used in treatment of various ailments i.e. jaundice, intestinal worm infection, wounds, malaria, syphilis, epilepsy, dysentery, constipation, diarrhea, hemorrhoid, stomach aches, asthma, and fever. It contains protein, lipid, carbohydrate, alkaloid, saponin, flavonoid, and organic acid. Present review summarizes the traditional claims, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of B. aegyptiaca Del reported in scientific literature.

Evaluation of Phytochemicals in Select Medicinal Plants of the Caesalpinia Species

A comparative study of phytochemicals was made on leaf extracts of two herbal plants- Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swartz (a domesticated striking ornamental shrub) and Caesalpinia bonduc (L) Roxb (a wild spiny shrub) belonging to the family Caesalpinaceae. The leaf extracts were prepared with 4 different selected solvents for each plant to adjudge the major active principle in the solvent that has value in rational drug design. The qualitative analysis of phytochemicals encompasses carbohydrates, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, betacyanins, quinones, terepenoids, phenols, glycosides, cardiac glycosides and the results were the mean values of the triplet readings. The quantitative total phenol estimation has carved out the fact that the wild plants is contributing high values for the secondary metabolites than the domesticated plant triggering the notion domestication, the need of the hour for the distinct endangered wild medicinal plants shall be done without the loss of the quality of the drug, the property of the medicinal plants as a boon to the future generation.

Evaluation of phytochemicals in select medicinal plants of the Caesalpinia species

A comparative study of phytochemicals was made on leaf extracts of two herbal plants- Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swartz (a domesticated striking ornamental shrub) and Caesalpinia bonduc (L) Roxb (a wild spiny shrub) belonging to the family Caesalpinaceae. The leaf extracts were prepared with 4 different selected solvents for each plant to adjudge the major active principle in the solvent that has value in rational drug design. The qualitative analysis of phytochemicals encompasses carbohydrates, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, alkaloids, betacyanins, quinones, terepenoids, phenols, glycosides, cardiac glycosides and the results were the mean values of the triplet readings. The quantitative total phenol estimation has carved out the fact that the wild plants is contributing high values for the secondary metabolites than the domesticated plant triggering the notion domestication, the need of the hour for the distinct endangered wild medicinal plants shall be done without the loss of the quality of the drug, the property of the medicinal plants as a boon to the future generation.Keywords: Caesalpinia pulcherrima, caesalpinia bonduc, phytochemical analysis, leaf extracts.

Prevalence of mesquite (prosopis species) allergy and efficacy of conventional allergen specific Immunotherapy (ASIT) to mesquite in Egyptian patients with perennial allergic rhinitis (PAR)

Background Mesquite is a genus of leguminous spiny trees and shrubs abundant in the tropical and subtropical deserts. Mesquite pollen is a potent allergen capable of inducing allergy in susceptible individuals living remote from the plant source. This study was conducted on 200 PAR patients in the Suez Canal region of Egypt to determine the prevalence of mesquite allergy and to assess the efficacy of conventional ASIT in these patients. Subjects, materials and methods Two hundred adult PAR patients were evaluated by allergy prick skin testing (PST) against a panel of 15 different aeroallergens including mesquite. Patients exhibiting a positive PST response to mesquite only were subjected to mesquite conventional subcutaneous ASIT. All reagents were purchased from Omega Laboratories, CANADA. Informed consents, symptom and medication scores were obtained before and after ASIT. Results Eighty six patients exhibited a positive PST response to mesquite allergen. Out of these 38 patients were positive to mesquite allergen only. Significant improvement in symptom and medication scores were detected in 24/38 patients 4 months after the initiation of ASIT. Conclusions Mesquite pollen allergy is common among Egyptian PAR patients and ASIT with mesquite extract can reduce the burden of the disease in these patients.

Effects of cattle and rabbit grazing on clonal expansion of spiny shrubs in wood-pastures

Spiny shrubs protect non-defended plants against herbivores. Therefore, they play a role for the diversity in grazed ecosystems. While the importance of these keystone nurse shrubs is presently recognized, little is known about the factors controlling them. This knowledge is required to understand the functioning of grazed ecosystems and for sustainable management. We studied effects of cattle and rabbits on clonal expansion of Prunus spinosa in two ancient wood-pastures in the Netherlands. At each site we set up five blocks in grassland perpendicular to the edges of mature Prunus thickets, each block containing three herbivore treatments: (1) open-to-cattle-and-rabbits, (2) open to rabbits, cattle excluded, (3) cattle and rabbits excluded. We monitored the number and volume of Prunus ramets from 1998 to 2000 and again in 2003, 3 years after exclosure-removal to restore grazing. For 1998–2000 ramet volume, but not ramet number, differed between treatments. Ramet volume was highest when both cattle and rabbits were excluded. Ramet volume did not differ between grazing by rabbits or cattle and rabbits combined, indicating that rabbits alone may be as effective in inhibiting clonal expansion as cattle and rabbits combined. Three years after exclosure-removal ramet number and volume had increased in all treatments. Number of ramets remained unaffected by (former) treatments. Ramet volume remained highest in the former cattle-plus-rabbits exclusion treatment, differing significantly from the ‘open-to-cattle-and-rabbits’ treatment. So, once successfully established during herbivore absence, further expansion is not prevented by cattle and rabbit grazing. This study shows that vertebrate herbivory controls the keystone nurse-shrub in wood-pastures: combined cattle and rabbit grazing, and notably rabbits alone, inhibit expansion. Temporary herbivore absence allows expansion of ramets, which persists after herbivore-reappearance. Sustainable management of wood-pastures should allow spatial-temporal fluctuations of herbivore densities, leading to increased vegetation structure and associated biodiversity.

Processing, analytical caracteristics and skin anti-ageing properties of a purified sea buckthorn extract

Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L. – Elaeagnaceae) is a spiny shrub native to Europe and Asia. The entire plant has been used for centuries in traditional medicine, but lately the interest has been focused on the berries, particularly for their nutritional value. They are rich in organic acids (mainly malic acid), carotenoids, phytosterols and flavonoïds. The berries are processed into 3 types of extracts: the pulp juice for the food market, pulp and seed CO2 extracts mainly for the cosmetic market. We focused on the potential use of sea buckthorn juice in cosmetic application, particularly for its organic acids. The juice commercialized for food products is difficult to use in cosmetics because of its odour and colour impacts on cosmetics products. In order to lessen this problem, we used ion exchange resins to purify the organic acids from a commercial sea buckthorn juice. The organic acids were analysed by HPLC – UV. After ion exchange resin treatment, the organic acids represent the majority of the soluble solids present in the juice. Malic acid concentration is about 3 times higher than in the previous commercial juice. Quinic acid is also present in important concentration, along with ascorbic acid. In addition to the organic acids, the treated juice still contains some flavonoïds. The anti-ageing activities of this organic acid rich sea buckthorn extract were demonstrated on dermal cells.

Regeneration niche of the Canarian juniper: the role of adults, shrubs and environmental conditions

• Canarian Juniper woodlands, now very scarce, are rich in endemic and endangered plants. However, many aspects of juniper regeneration are almost unknown. • This paper relates occurrence and abundance of recruits of Juniperus turbinata ssp. canariensis to (1) small-scale soil characteristics; (2) vegetation cover; and (3) distance to conspecific adults in two contrasting juniper stands in the eastern mountains of Tenerife. We used non-parametric classification trees and generalised linear models (GLM) to evaluate the effect and importance of each explanatory variable on the occurrence of juniper saplings. • Sapling density, vitality and growth rate, as well as fruit production by adult trees, but neither cone density on the ground nor sapling size, varied significantly with respect to slope orientation, representing environmental stress. Within each stand, distance to nearest adult tree was the most important variable explaining the spatial distribution of juniper saplings and availability of seeds in cones. Additionally, saplings were positively associated with shrub cover at the microsite-level, but not with spiny shrub cover. Soil depth and rock cover had a weak negative effect on sapling establishment, but only at the south-facing site and in the open space microhabitat. • Results suggest that recruitment of Canarian juniper is facilitated by microhabitats offered by adults and shrubs. The key factors affecting recruitment are thought to be (1) favourable microenvironmental conditions and (2) high ambient seed availability. Browsing intensity in recent decades was very low. The presence of spiny shrubs did not favour juniper establishment. Facilitation therefore appears to result from amelioration of abiotic conditions rather than from protection against herbivory.

Gorse seed bank variability in maritime pine stands

AbstractEuropean gorse (Ulex europaeusL.) is a spiny shrub that grows spontaneously in the understorey of forests and heathlands in western Europe. Gorse is a pioneer species and forms large seed banks that can persist for a long time while buried deeply in the soil. Although many studies have been conducted on gorse seed banks in invasive contexts and in scrubland ecosystems, few data are available on forests in a native context. The aim of the present study was thus to report on the variability of seed-bank density in ‘critical’ stages in the forest management of pine stands (five stands) in south-western France. We examined variations in the number of gorse seeds as a function of soil depth but also of the presence and abundance of adult gorse in the understorey. Seed-bank density did not show a clear decrease in seed number with pine stand age, principally because gorse also appears to be able to establish itself in mature pine stands, probably thanks to local disturbances. In the pine stands in our study, the presence and abundance of seeds in the soil appeared to depend mostly on the presence of adult gorse as seeders in the understorey. Finally, we observed that, contrary to what has generally been found in scrubland ecosystems, most gorse seeds were located in the 5–10 cm soil layer rather than in the 0–5 cm soil layer. This depletion of the first 5 cm may be linked to seed germination that was not compensated for by the production of new seeds.

Allophylus conraui (Sapindaceae) reassessed and Allophylus ujori described from Cameroon Highlands of West Africa

Allophylus conraui Gilg ex Radlk. as treated in the Flora of West Tropical Africa is reassessed and shown to comprise two distinct taxa, one of which, a spiny shrub or small tree of upper submontane forest in Cameroon and Nigeria, is described as Allophylus ujori Cheek. The second taxon, a lowland to lower submontane spineless small shrub, of Cameroon is redescribed as Allophylus conraui and neotypified. The affinities and conservation status of both these threatened species are discussed. Both taxa are illustrated.

Management of the invasive Mimosa pigra L. in Lochinvar National Park, Zambia

Mimosa pigra L. is a tropical/sub-tropical spiny shrub that is becoming invasive in several parts of Asia, Australia and Africa. It is spreading on several floodplains where it can form thick, impenetrable, one-species stands that exclude other plants and most animals - both terrestrial and aquatic. M. pigra has invaded the floodplain of the Kafue River - a significant tributary of the Zambezi - in Zambia, especially within the regularly flooded areas of Lochinvar National Park (LNP). Here it has spread from a small infestation of about 2 ha in the early 1980s to at least 29,000 ha by 2005 - and is still spreading. This invasion is occupying a significant proportion of the protected floodplain - in the national park, which is also a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance and an Important Bird Area - with significant exclusion and negative impacts on the local biodiversity and on tourism, conservation and floodplain use by livestock and fisheries. The spread of M. pigra has resulted in the disappearance of some lekking sites for the endemic and vulnerable Kafue lechwe antelope (Kobus leche kafuensis) and its displacement from LNP into areas where it receives less protection resulting in increased illegal off-take of this threatened sub-species. Additionally, dense M. pigra stands have occupied preferred habitat for water birds and its further spread is likely to result in a drastic collapse of water bird populations in LNP. In response, the Environmental Council of Zambia in collaboration with the Zambia Wildlife Authority and with the support of a UNEP/GEF Project has conducted physical and chemical control measures since 2007. Thus far, an area approximated at 501.6 ha (17.3% of the current M. pigra infestation in LNP) has been cleared, resulting in the return of some water birds and herbivores including the lechwe. This paper presents the current status of the Mimosa invasion, its impact on biodiversity and the current control measures being employed, with emphasis on clearance of the invasive Mimosa in the protected areas.

Effects of browsing in relation to vegetation cover on common yew (Taxus baccata L.) recruitment in Mediterranean environments

Common yew (Taxus baccata L.) stands are recognized as prioritary habitats for biodiversity conservation within the European Union. The effects of browsing on the regeneration capacity and spatial dispersal of T. baccata recruits at the European southern limit of the species in the Mediterranean Basin have been herein studied. The efficacy of T. baccata recruitment has been evaluated at six localities in the Northern Sardinia mountains, which have similar altitude, climate, soil, and vegetation but have different types of uses (three were grazed by livestock and three were not). At each site, five habitats have been identified for T. baccata seed dispersal: reproductive female T. baccata canopy, reproductive female Ilex aquifolium canopy, non-fleshy-fruited tree canopy, fleshy-fruited shrubs, and open areas. The density of seedlings was found to be greater under fleshy-fruited trees (reproductive female T. baccata and I. aquifolium) than under shrubs, whereas the sapling density was higher in shrubby habitats, especially at grazed sites due to the mechanical protection afforded by the spiny shrubs against herbivores. Land use (LU) has been found to be the most important factor in determining the spatial distribution of seedlings and saplings in relation to forest habitats. Although browsers had an ephemeral but positive effect on seed germination through their trampling and the resultant scarification, this process eventually became ineffective as was shown by the occurrence of the lowest density of saplings in those habitats where the density of seedlings was the highest. The ultimate and most important effect of browsing was the sharp decrease in the density of saplings, and their almost complete extinction, in non-shrubby habitats. This study highlights the result that, in Mediterranean ecosystems, browsing constitutes the main negative factor on T. baccata seedling-sapling transition and furthermore confirms the necessity to preserve shrubby patches in the vicinity of reproductive female T. baccata and I. aquifolium to permit the regeneration of T. baccata in the presence of livestock. Moreover, at ungrazed sites, T. baccata is able to colonize non-shrubby shady habitats. The application of different management strategies to ungrazed and grazed sites should therefore be the main direction in the management and preservation of T. baccata stands in the Mediterranean region.

Establishment patterns of woody species in low intensity-grazed pastures after the cessation of intensive agricultural use

Low intensity grazing with large herbivores is increasingly used to steer the development of mosaic landscapes (including wood-pastures) and woodland expansion on former agricultural land. We studied the establishment and early growth pattern of woody species in grasslands (formerly used for high intensity summer cattle grazing) in which a low intensity-grazing regime was set up between 4 and 11 years ago. We tested whether the developing vegetation patches, consisting of tall herbs and scrub, influenced this pattern. Further, we investigated if increased susceptibility to trampling disturbance by large herbivores on wet soils in floodplains influenced sapling establishment. Formerly intensively used grasslands were studied at six sites, four in floodplains and two in interfluvial zones on nutrient rich, heavy soils. In total, we sampled 141 plots with grassland, tall herb or scrub vegetation and recorded individuals of established tree and shrub species, their height, diameter, browsing damage and distance to potential seed sources. In the floodplains, we recorded soil disturbance by large herbivores (hoofprints) in wet and moist soils. Sapling frequencies, with Fraxinus excelsior as the most common species (>50% of all individuals), were two to three times higher in tall herb and scrub patches compared to grassland. Only the spiny Crataegus monogyna established in higher frequencies in grassland plots. In floodplains, we found two to three times more established woody saplings in wet tall herb plots, compared to moist and wet grassland plots and moist tall herb plots. Browsing reduced sapling height in grassland and tall herb patches. Only in scrub patches did average height (±2.5 m) reach above the browse line. We found 30–70% less browsing damage to saplings in scrub compared to damage in grassland and tall herb plots. In particular, damage to the apical shoot was strongly reduced. Our findings show that tree establishment occurs in spatial association with non-grassland patches that offer protection against browsing. Fast growing spiny shrubs like Rubus sp. offer protection for palatable saplings, allowing establishment and growing out beyond the browse line. Alternatively, increased establishment occurs in wet tall herb patches, where soil disturbance by moderate trampling favours germination and, subsequently, saplings are protected at least temporarily against browsing by unpalatable tall herbs.

Facilitation of Quercus ilex recruitment by shrubs in Mediterranean open woodlands

AbstractQuestion: Insufficient tree regeneration threatens the long‐term persistence of biodiverse Mediterranean open oak woodlands. Could shrubs, scarce due to decades of management (clearing and ploughing), facilitate holm oak recruitment at both acorn and seedling stages?Location: Open oak woodlands in Central Spain.Methods: Plots with four acorns were planted: (1) under the canopy of the spiny shrub Genista hirsuta, (2) in a small cage, protecting against ungulates, (3) in a shaded cage, protecting against ungulates and sun, and (4) in open grassland. Sets of these four treatments were spatially grouped according to a randomised block design, with 16 blocks near (< 10 m) and 16 away from (> 20 m) parent trees to test for distance‐related survival. Plots were regularly checked for seed removal. After emergence one seedling per plot (97 in total) was selected and its survival monitored.Results: Three months after sowing, 199 of 512 acorns were removed, predominantly by rodents. Acorn removal occurred at each treatment but was highest under shrubs. Eight months after sowing, seedling survival was highest under shrubs (50%), followed by shaded cages (16%), open grassland (4%) and cages (0%). Main mortality cause was drought (90%), killing most seedlings between June and July. No seedlings died from ungulate browsing.Conclusion: Shrubs demonstrated clear net facilitative effects for Quercus ilex recruitment, despite higher seed removal. Shading appears the crucial factor facilitating seedling survival. We therefore propose that lack of shrubs contributes largely to tree recruitment failure in Mediterranean open woodlands; management should aim at conserving shrubs.

Successional Transitions and Management of a Phosphorus-Limited Shrubland Ecosystem

The decline of traditional pastoral systems has highlighted the problem of managing shrub encroachment on successional shrublands in the Mediterranean region, especially in marginal habitats. A long-term study of the response of ecosystem dynamics to phosphate amelioration and shrub control was initiated in 1988 on an area of phosphorus deficient terra rossa, dominated by dwarf shrubs that had been burnt in the summer of that year. The treatments were imposed in a replicated factorial design once at the beginning of the study. The area was previously grazed yearlong by goats, but during the experiment beef cattle grazed the area during the summer of each year. Without herbicide control, shrub cover reached its preburn level within 5 years, but with shrub control after 17 years, it had not yet reached the preburn level. The average shrub cover over the whole experimental period was 41.9%–49.1% without herbicide and 13.5%–24.4% with (P < 0.0001, SE of the difference = 3.99). The effect of phosphate application on shrub cover was not significant, but cover of herbaceous vegetation increased (P < 0.0016, SE of difference = 5.03). A “state and transition” scheme was constructed that defines the interventions necessary to buffer any one of the states against the pressures of successional processes. Vegetation states were defined by the dominance of either herbaceous vegetation or one of two spiny shrub species, Prickly burnet (Sarcopoterium spinosum, Rosaceae) and Calicotome villosa (Fabaceae). The timing and scale of the interventions depend largely on landscape management objectives and on available economic and logistic resources. We conclude that appropriate management of grazing, periodic control of the shrub component, and occasional soil nutrient amelioration can lead to the development of attractive open woodland with a productive herbaceous understory that provides a wider range of ecological services than a landscape dominated by the undisturbed successional shrub thickets.

A new species of Leiosaurus (Iguania: Leiosauridae) from central-western Argentina

In this paper we describe a new species of the Leiosaurus genus from central-western Argentina. This new taxon presents remarkable differences regarding the lepidosis and coloration pattern compared to the other species of the genus: L. catamarcensis, L. paronae and L. bellii. The dorsal coloration pattern is unique and is characterized by dorsal markings similar to the colour design of some felines like the jaguar. This new species inhabits the highlands of central-western Argentina where steppe bunch grasses with low plant formation and low spiny shrubs prevail. However, little is known of its biology as with the other species of the genus Leiosaurus. The discovery of this new taxon is significant, because it has been one hundred years since the last description of a new species of these taxa.

Conditional outcomes in plant–herbivore interactions: neighbours matter

Spatial distribution of palatable and unpalatable plants can influence the foraging behaviour of herbivores, thereby changing plant‐damage probabilities. Moreover, the immediate proximity to certain plants can benefit other plants that grow below them, where toxicity or spines act as a physical barrier or concealment against herbivores. This paper presents the results of a multi‐scale experiment performed to test the effect of shrubs as protectors of tree saplings against herbivores and the mechanism involved in Mediterranean ecosystems. We performed a factorial design in two mountain ranges, similar in physiognomy and vegetation, planting saplings of a palatable tree, the maple (Acer opalus subsp. granatense), and an unpalatable tree, the black pine (Pinus nigra), under three different types of shrubs. We considered four experimental microhabitats: highly palatable shrub (Amelanchier ovalis), palatable but spiny shrub (Crataegus monogyna or Prunus ramburii), unpalatable spiny shrub (Berberis vulgaris subsp. australis) and control (gaps of bare soil without shrubs). Three main factors were found to determine the probability of sapling attack: sapling palatability, experimental microhabitat and plot. Palatable saplings (maples) were browsed much more than unpalatable ones (pines). The degree of protection provided by the shrub proved greater as its palatability decreased with respect to sapling palatability, the unpalatable spiny shrub being the safest microhabitat for palatable saplings and bare soil for unpalatable ones. The differences found in number of attacked saplings between plots may be attributable to differences in herbivore pressure. The community context in which interaction takes place, namely the characteristics of the neighbours and the intensity of herbivore pressure, are determining factors for understanding and predicting the damage undergone by a target plant species. The mechanism that best explains these results is associational avoidance of saplings that grow near to unpalatable shrubs. It is necessary to introduce this neighbour effect in theoretical models and food‐web approaches that analyse the plant–herbivore relationships, since it can strongly determine not only the intensity of the interaction, but also the spatial distribution and diversity of the plant community.

Vegetation Composition and Succession of Abandoned Farmland: Effects of Ecological, Historical and Spatial Factors

In North America, as well as in Europe, the mechanization and the modernization of the agricultural activities had strongly modified the agricultural landscapes. Originating from these transformations of the agricultural environment, abandoned farmlands remain poorly known environments. A holistic approach, including the analysis of ecological, historical and spatial factors, is used in order to understand the dynamics of these environments created by agricultural abandonment in southwestern Quebec (Canada). The analysis of 36 abandoned farmlands in the study area reveals the existence of two ecological groups. The first ecological group is composed by abandoned farmlands originating from pasture and at the moment dominated by a spiny shrub vegetation. The second ecological group includes past cultivated field at the moment dominated by either hydric herbaceous and shrub vegetation. Abiotic ecological variables such as slope, surface stoniness, canopy opening and soil pH, as well as land-use history, and age of the abandoned farmlands, are major factors explaining the current state of abandoned farmlands. Succession vector analysis reveals a strong differentiation among abandoned farmlands as to their tree species regeneration. Possible management alternatives, such as reforestation, are proposed in order to integrate those new environments to the modern agricultural landscape.

Testudo graeca graeca feeding ecology in an arid and overgrazed zone in Morocco

Terrestrial chelonians of arid regions are frequently faced with highly variable food quality and/or quantity and these problems could be aggravated in overgrazing areas. Then, it is crucial for species conservation to possess precise data on feeding ecology. In this paper, we provide the first quantitative data on Testudo graeca graeca feeding ecology, in the central Jbilets (Morocco). Diet composition was obtained by faecal analysis and compared to plant assemblages in the field. Interestingly, T. g. graeca seems rather a specialist herbivorous tortoise. The five main plant species found in faecal samples ( Leontodon saxatilis (Asteraceae); Malva parviflora (Malvaceae); Astragalus cruciatus, Medicago hispida and Lotus arenarius (Fabaceae)) represent 70% of the identified material and are highly preferred whereas several other plant species, common in the field (e.g. Eryngium ilicifolium (Ombellifereae); Emex spinosus (Polygonaceae); Spergula flaccida Caryophyllaceae)) are actively avoided. Fabaceae made up 27% of the diet and may be important forbs in the diet of terrestrial tortoise owing to their high nutritional value. The diet composition of T. g. graeca suggests that diet overlap may occur between domestic ungulates and tortoises in overgrazed landscape and could generate a competition context. However, T. g. graeca seems to focus its foraging effort under the spiny shrubs where the impact of overgrazing is strongly attenuated.