C2 Spinous Process Research Articles

In Reply to the Letter to the Editor “C2 Spinous Process Screws”

In Reply to the Letter to the Editor “C2 Spinous Process Screws”

Radiographic indices for the diagnosis of atlantoaxial instability in toy breed dogs [corrected

Toy breed dogs are overrepresented for atlantoaxial instability. Radiography is a standard diagnostic test, however published toy breed-specific radiographic measurements are lacking and diagnosis remains largely subjective. Aims of this retrospective, diagnostic accuracy study were to describe normal values and determine whether some quantitative radiographic criteria strongly support a diagnosis of atlantoaxial instability specific to toy breed dogs. Neutral lateral and ventrodorsal radiographs of 102 toy breed dogs (92 control, 10 affected) were reviewed. The median C1-C2 overlap (the distance of overlap between the C2 spinous process and the dorsal arch of C1) was +4.65mm in control dogs and -5.00mm in atlantoaxial instability cases. A C1-C2 overlap ≤+1.55mm was the most sensitive (100%) and specific (94.5%) radiographic measurement in the diagnosis of atlantoaxial instability. Three relative measurements were performed: the ventral atlantodental interval to dorsal atlantodental interval ratio, the dens/C2 ratio, and the C1-C2 angle. These three relative measurements had good specificity (94.5, 86.9, and 98.9%, respectively), lower sensitivity (80.0, 66.7, and 60.0%, respectively), and were not influenced by body weight (P>0.05). Absolute measurements (including absolute dens length and atlantoaxial distance) were significantly correlated with body weight (P<0.05) diminishing their utility in the diagnosis of atlantoaxial instability. Decreased C1-C2 overlap strongly supports atlantoaxial instability. The ventral atlantodental interval/dorsal atlantodental interval ratio, dens/C2 ratio, and C1-C2 angle may provide further support but may be normal in individual cases.

Traumatic Unilateral Sixth to Seventh Cervical Vertebral Facet Luxation in a Dog

AbstractWe describe the surgical reduction of a traumatic, unilateral cervical vertebral facet joint luxation in a large breed dog. Computed tomography (CT) including CT myelography revealed complete luxation of the left articular processes C6 to C7 without fracture of the main weight-bearing structures. There was marked spinal cord compression secondary to the malalignment. Due to the non-ambulatory tetraparetic status, open reduction was chosen as the treatment of choice. After making a dorsal surgical approach to the caudal cervical spine, the luxated articular processes were visible and repositioned. Owing to marked mobility of this joint, temporary stabilization with a nonabsorbable suture between the spinous processes of C6 and C7 was performed and good stability was obtained. The dog recovered uneventfully from the surgery and regained normal ambulation. Follow-up examination including a second CT 9 months after surgery showed no neurological abnormalities and unrestricted motion of the neck. Normal cervical vertebral alignment with moderate osteoarthritis of the right facet joint and mild spondylosis deformans C6 to C7 were present. The present case report shows successful management of a traumatic cervical facet joint luxation without persistent neurological deficits. Open reduction and temporary stabilization with suture material seem to be a valuable method of treatment. The dorsal approach allowed direct inspection of the facet joints with concurrent access to place suture material for temporary stabilization.

Three-dimensional motion analysis of the 2nd cervical spinous process at end range cervical rotation in different scapular positions using 3D digitizer

It has been reported that passive elevation of the scapulae significantly decreases neck pain and increases cervical range of motion. However, it is unknown whether upper cervical rotation is influenced by different scapula positions or not. The study used a 3D digitizer to determine three-dimensional motion analysis of the 2nd cervical (C2) spinous process at end range cervical rotation with the scapula in different positions. 30 healthy adults (21.2 ± 0.8 years) participated in this study. Different scapula positions were adopted bilaterally and passively placed at (1) normal resting position, (2) depression, (3) adduction (4) abduction, with a neutral gleno-humeral joint in sitting. Under each scapula position, bilateral end range cervical rotation (degree) and displacement of the C2 spinous process [mm] were analyzed by a 3D digitizer device. End range rotation was analyzed by the vector from the left to right mastoid of the occipital bone related to the vector from the left to right acromial angle. Displacement of the C2 spinous process was calculated as the change in distance between the mastoid process and the point of intersection from perpendicular line from the C2 spinous process to the line between both mastoids at neutral and end range of cervical rotation. The results of our study indicate that there were no significant differences between end range cervical rotation and displacement of the C2 spinous process relative to the occiput in any scapular position. However, displacement of the C2 spinous process relative to the occiput was significantly correlated with range of cervical rotation under all scapular positions ( P < 0.05). Flexibility of upper cervical rotation would be influenced on end range cervical rotation regardless of scapular positions.

Consensus for the measurement of the camptocormia angle in the standing patient

IntroductionCamptocormia is characterized by a pathological forward flexion of the trunk, which is reversible when lying and worsened by standing and walking. So far there is no consensus on how to measure the angle of flexion, and studies therefore give differing results. Harmonization is needed for both research and clinical practice. Orthopedic measures are not useful for this purpose. MethodsTwo expert raters independently analyzed the photographs of 39 Parkinson patients with camptocormia while standing. They used four different methods to determine the camptocormia angle. The results were compared statistically. An international Consensus Group reviewed the results and drafted recommendations. ResultsThe four methods yielded camptocormia angles that differed by up to 50% in the same patient. Inter-rater reliability and test-retest reliability also differed, but were satisfactory to excellent. ConclusionThis Consensus Group concluded that two of the methods qualified as reliable measures of the trunk angles in standing patients based on their clinimetric properties. They propose that the ‘total camptocomia angle’ be the angle between the line from the lateral malleolus to the L5 spinous process and the line between the L5 spinous process and the spinous process of C7. They also propose that the ‘upper camptocormia angle’ be the angle of the lines between the vertebral fulcrum to the spinous processes of L5 and C7, respectively. An app is provided on the web for these measurements (http://www.neurologie.uni-kiel.de/de/axial-posturale-stoerungen/camptoapp).

Treatment of Occipital Neuralgia by Electroacupuncture Combined with Neural Mobilization

To observe the effect of electroacupuncture (EA) combined with neural mobilization (NM) in the treatment of occipital neuralgia. A total of 62 occipital neuralgia patients were randomized into EA group (19 cases), NM group (22 cases) and EA＋NM group (21 cases). EA was applied at acupoint-pairs as Yuzhen (BL 9)- Tianzhu (BL 10), Fengchi (GB 20)- Wangu (GB 12), etc. NM intervention consisted of occipital muscle group mobilization, C2 spinous process mobilization, cervical joint passive movement management mobilization, etc., was performed at the impaired cervical spine segment. The two methods were used in combination for patients in the EA＋NM group. All the treatment was given once a day for 2 weeks. Before and after treatment, the visual analogue scale (VAS) and the 6-point (1－6 points) behavioral rating scale (BRS-6) of headache were used to assess the severity of pain. The therapeutic effect was evaluated according to the "Criteria for Diagnosis and Cure-Improvement of Clinical Conditions" formulated by State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine of the People's Republic of China in 1994. After treatment, both VAS and BRS-6 scores were significantly lower than those before treatment in each of the three groups (P<0.05), and were significantly lower in the EA＋NM group than in the simple EA and simple NM groups (P<0.01,P<0.05). The total effective rates were 78.95% (15/19) in the EA group, 68.18% (15/22) in the NM group, and 90.48% (19/21) in the EA＋NM group, with an obviously better therapeutic effect being in the EA＋NM group relevant to each of the other two treatment groups (P<0.05). EA, NM and EA combined with NM can improve symptoms of patients with occipital neuralgia, and EA＋NM has a synergic analgesic effect for occipital neuralgia.

Accuracy of Motion Palpation Flexion-Extension Test in Identifying the Seventh Cervical Spinal Process

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of a motion palpation procedure, the flexion-extension test, in localizing the spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra (C7). MethodsWe analyzed 101 adult participants with metal markers that permitted the identification of the C7 spinous process. This analysis occurred during a flexion-extension test and was confirmed by radiography. Data sample characteristics were analyzed by descriptive statistics, and the relationship between independent variables (weight, height, sex, age, and body mass index [BMI]) and dependent variables (coincidence between the most prominent vertebra and the stationary vertebra, as determined by the flexion-extension test) was determined via logistic regression. ResultsThe sample population was 48.5% male with a mean age of 56.8 years (standard deviation, ±14.9) and a mean BMI of 25.54 kg/m2 (standard deviation, ±5.5). In 54.5% of cases, the C7 spinous process was correctly identified by the flexion-extension test. The agreement between the flexion-extension test and radiography in accuracy of localization of the C7 spinous process was significant (P = .021), as was the correct localization of C7 (P = .05). ConclusionThe localization of the C7 spinous process was more accurate in individuals with a BMI <25 kg/m2 and whose most prominent vertebra coincided with the stationary vertebra as determined by the flexion-extension test.

Evaluating Ossifications of the Nuchal Ligament with Cervical Computed Tomography.

The nuchal ligament (NL) extends from the external occipital protuberance and median nuchal line to the spinous process of the 7th cervical vertebrae. In this study, we evaluated the incidence, location level, and size of ossifications of the NL (ONL) in patients who underwent cervical computed tomography (CT) for various reasons. The present study included 481 patients (187 females and 294 males) who underwent cervical CT from February 2011 to November 2016 due to reasons such as trauma, cervical spondylosis, neck pain, and screening for metastasis. CT was performed using 2- or 8-slice scanners. Archive images of patients on picture archiving and communication system were retrospectively evaluated by two radiologists. The structures in bone density and form detected in NL were evaluated as nuchal ossification. ONL location levels, numbers, and dimensions were determined. The relationship between both sexes and age and the incidence of ONL was investigated. ONL was detected in 44 patients (9.14%). The mean ages of patients with ONL and without ONL were 62.27±13.92 (23-86) and 41.78±20.76 (4-101) years, respectively. There was a statistically significant relationship between ONL and age (p<0.001). Thirty-six patients had one ONL, seven patients had two, and one patient had three. The most common ONL location was the C5 spinous process level (n=12) followed by the C6 spinous process level (n=8). The longest ONL in craniocaudal direction was 20.9 mm, and the shortest one was 3.1 mm. ONL is a smooth-contoured ovoid or round bone structure extending parallel to the longitudinal axis that can frequently be observed as one or multiple occurrences with different sizes on cervical CT images.

Is tactile acuity altered in individuals with acute mechanical neck pain?

Background: Tactile acuity measured by point discrimination (TPD) refers to the precision by which we can sense touch. An increase in TPD threshold (loss of tactile acuity) is considered suggestive of disruptions to S1 cortical maps of that specific body part. In some chronically painful conditions, reduced tactile acuity is a manifestation of Central sensitization (CS). The other symptoms include hyperalgesia and allodynia due to repeated activation of spinal nociceptors. A recent study has shown that tactile acuity is affected in individuals with chronic neck pain. While there seems to be adequate evidence stating that tactile acuity is reduced in individuals with chronic pain, CS may not be limited to chronic pain states. There is a paucity of literature with respect to the tactile acuity of a person with acute neck pain. A measurement of tactile acuity of the affected body area in acute pain, may suggest the extent of the altered threshold of sensory discriminative aspect of pain experience. Objectives: To compare the two-point discrimination over C7 spinous process between the symptomatic individuals with mechanical neck pain and age matched healthy controls. Methods: 30 individuals with mechanical neck pain & 30 age matched normals were assessed for two point discrimination using mechanical calipers, The two sharp points of the caliper were vertically placed against the skin surface over C7 spinous process, commencing with 5mm, which was stretched out till the subject appreciated the two points. Values were noted down in millimeters. Results: An independent t – test showed a significant difference in the two point discrimination between the 2 groups (P < 0.000). Conclusion: It can be concluded that individuals with acute mechanical neck pain demonstrated a change in tactile acuity.

Use of intraoperative X-ray to differentiate between reducible versus irreducible atlantoaxial dislocation.

Background:The treatment and classification of atlantoaxial dislocations (AADs) remain controversial. Here, we utilized intraoperative X-ray to differentiate between reducible and irreducible AADs.Methods:Five patients were diagnosed as having irreducible AAD on dynamic and post-traction X-rays. Under general anesthesia, they were placed prone in a neutral position utilizing skeletal traction. The X-rays and motor evoked potential (MEP), were then monitored before, during, and after placing a thumb on the C2 spinous process and pushing it anteriorly to attain reduction.Results:The intraoperative X-ray confirmed reducibility of AAD in four patients; they subsequently underwent a C1–C2 posterior fusion, which maintained that reduction. For the one patient with an irreducible AAD (despite thumb maneuver), an anterior release was required first to attain reduction, followed by posterior C1–C2 fusion.Conclusion:Here, we divided irreducible AAD into two categories: a) reducible—utilizing a thumb maneuver to compress/push the C2 spinous process forward with the patient positioned prone and b) irreducible—those who cannot be reduced with this technique. A posterior only approach was sufficient for those with “reducible” AAD, whereas those who could not be reduced required an anterior release followed by posterior fusion.

Recent Surgical Methods of Double-door Laminoplasty of the Cervical Spine (Kurokawa's Method).

Introduction Double-door laminoplasty (DDL) of the cervical spine (Kurokawa's method) was developed as one of posterior decompression surgical methods in the late 1970s and after then has been modified by adding various procedures such as the posterior muscle handling and the use of artificial spacers. There are three principles of DDL: First, to decompress the cervical spinal cord by central splitting of the spinous processes and laminae, preserving those lengths as much as possible and widening the spinal canal space symmetrically. Second, to maintain the widened spinal canal space steadily by fixing spacers made of hydroxyapatite the contour is almost the same as the widened space. Third, to re-suture the semispinalis muscles to the C2 spinous process to restore the strength of the posterior cervical muscles. Technical note The important technical points in performing osteotomy are as follows: At each vertebra, osteotomy is performed from the caudal side and gradually proceeds to the cranial side because there is a space between the lamina and the dura mater at the caudal side and the osteotomy can be safely made. The surgeon must pay attention to the changes in color of the osteotomy site from red of cancellous bone, to white of the inner cortex, and finally to yellow of the yellow ligament and extradural fat tissue. Attention must be paid to the changes in sound and tactile sensation delivered from the air-drill when completing osteotomy of the inner cortex of lamina. By moving an air-drill slowly, tactile sensation can be more sensitive. During osteotomy, the process must be checked frequently by touching the inner cortex of the lamina with a probe. Conclusion At present, DDL is a useful surgical method for cervical myelopathy at multiple level lesions.

Predisposing Factors of Fracture Nonunion After Posterior C1 Lateral Mass Screws Combined with C2 Pedicle/Laminar Screw Fixation for Type II Odontoid Fracture.

The aim of this study was to explore the predisposing factors for fracture nonunion after a lateral screw was combined with C2 pedicle/laminar screw for a type II odontoid fracture and hopefully provide references in decision making and surgical planning for spinal surgeons. This is a retrospective study. By retrieving the medical records from January 2010 to July 2015 in our hospital, 117 type II odontoid fracture patients were reviewed. According to the occurrence of fracture union at the final follow-up, patients were divided into 2 groups: union and nonunion. To investigate the predisposing factors for fracture nonunion, 3 categorized factors were analyzed statistically: patient characteristics-age, sex, body mass index, preoperative Japanese Orthopaedic Association (JOA) scores, duration, comorbidity, and complicated injuries; surgical variables-surgery time, blood loss, C2 fixation manner, vertebral artery injury, bone source for fusion between the posterior arch of C1 and the laminae and spinous process of C2; radiographic parameters-preoperative and immediate postoperative data of C0-2 curvature, C2-7 curvature, C2-7 sagittal vertical axis, C7 slope, fracture classification, congenital hypoplastic vertebral artery, and the separation and displacement of the odontoid fracture. Other variables including JOA and visual analog scale scores for neck pain, neck stiffness, and patient satisfaction at final follow-up were recorded and compared between the 2 groups. Postoperative fracture nonunion was detected in 76 of 117 patients (65%) at final follow-up. There was no statistically significant difference between the 2 groups in patient characteristics of sex, body mass index, JOA score, comorbidity, and complicated injuries. The mean age at operation was younger in the union group than in the nonunion group, and the mean duration was shorter in the union group than in the nonunion group. There was no difference in surgical variables of surgery time, blood loss, C2 fixation manner, vertebral artery injury, bone source for fusion between the posterior arch of C1 and the laminae and spinous process of C2. There was no difference in radiographic parameters of fracture classification, congenital hypoplastic vertebral artery, preoperative and immediate postoperative C0-2 curvature, C2-7 curvature, C2-7 SVA, and C7 slope. No difference was found in preoperative and immediate postoperative displacement of the odontoid fracture or immediate postoperative separation of the odontoid fracture, while the preoperative separation of the odontoid fracture was shorter in the union group than in the nonunion group. The logistic regression analysis revealed that advanced age (>45 years), long duration (>2 months), and preoperative separation of the odontoid fracture (>4 mm) were independently associated with the postoperative fracture nonunion. There were no differences between the 2 groups in JOA, neck pain, neck stiffness, and patient satisfaction at final follow-up. Advanced age, long duration, and preoperative separation of odontoid fracture >4 mm are predisposing factors for fracture nonunion after posterior C1 lateral screw combined with C2 pedicle/laminar screw fixation for type II odontoid fracture. Our findings did not demonstrate any evidence of lower functional outcome and patients satisfaction for those patients who had odontoid nonunion.

Cervical Laminoplasty: A Review of Indications, Technique and Outcomes

Laminoplasty is a motion-sparing decompression technique for the cervical spine. As the first description was published over 40 years ago, it has been established as an effective treatment for cervical spondylotic myelopathy. The application of this technique is predicated on maintenance of physiologic sagittal alignment in the cervical spine. Numerous variations of the originally published laminoplasty technique exist and they can be broadly categorized into symmetric or asymmetric canal expansions. Potential complications include chronic neck pain, C5 palsy, and door closure, among others. Recent clinical research suggests sparing the muscle attachments on the C2 and C7 spinous process may improve the incidence of pain. The purpose of this article is to review the indications and contraindications for cervical laminoplasty and evaluate its efficacy based on current literature.

Autonomic function and pressure pain threshold following thoracic mobilization in asymptomatic subjects: A randomized controlled trial

ObjectiveTo compare the effects of two different mobilization techniques and a placebo intervention applied to the thoracic spine on heart rate variability (HRV) and pressure pain threshold (PPT) in asymptomatic individuals. MethodsSixty healthy asymptomatic subjects aged between 18 and 40 years old were randomized to a single session of one of the three interventions: posterior-to-anterior (PA) rotatory thoracic passive accessory intervertebral mobilization (PAIVM) (PA group), unilateral thoracic PA in slump position (SLUMP group) or placebo intervention (Placebo group). HRV and PPT at C7 and T4 spinous process, first dorsal interossei muscles bilaterally, and muscle belly of tibialis anterior bilaterally were measured before and immediately after the intervention. A univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted for baseline values assessed the effect of “Group”. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons were performed. ResultsThere were no significant between-group differences for HRV. A significant between-group difference for PPT in the ipsilateral tibia was found favoring the SLUMP group in comparison with the PA group. There were no significant between-group differences for PPT in the other landmarks. ConclusionA single treatment of thoracic PAIVM in prone lying and slump position did not alter PPT and HRV compared to placebo in asymptomatic subjects.

I-shaped acupuncture therapy for treatment of cervical spondylosis

ObjectiveTo observe the efficacy of I-shaped acupuncture therapy for treatment of cervical spondylosis. MethodsI-shaped acupuncture therapy (penetration needling from Fēngchí (▪ GB 20) to Fēngfû (▪ GV 16), under the C3–C6 spinous process, Dàzhuī (▪ GV 14), Jiānzhōngshù (▪ SI 15), Jiānwàishù (▪ SI 14), and I-shaped acupoint selection way) was adopted for treatment of 80 cases of cervical spondylosis, needling manipulation was conducted for once every 10 min, and the needles were retained for 30 min. The treatment was carried out for once a day, and treatment for 10 times was considered as 1 course of treatment. ResultsSixty-seven patients were cured, and thirteen were improved. ConclusionThe efficacy of I-shaped acupuncture therapy for treatment of cervical spondylosis was definite.

Shape analysis of the cervical spinous process.

Most textbooks describe the bifid spinous process as a shape associated with the typical cervical vertebra. Somewhere later they may acknowledge that cervical vertebrae are not always bifid, and that its appearance may be asymmetric. A high incidence of bifid cervical spinous processes may be a human characteristic, but because of known racial/geographic variation it may not be a very good one. Rarely can one find a satisfactory explanation of the functional or developmental basis for this shape variation. This article explores the distinctive shape of the cervical spinous process. Analysis is based upon the spinous processes of the third through seventh cervical vertebrae from fifty individuals. Shape differences were evaluated using the techniques of geometric morphometrics. Statistical comparisons were based upon 1000 permutations of a MANOVA based analysis. Significant shape differences were identified among the cervical vertebrae. However, post hoc analysis failed to identify significant differences between the C3 and C4 and between the C4 and C5 spinous process shapes. Primary shape differences were due to the depth of the bifid separation and the length of the process. Vertebrae with shorter spinous processes tended to display a more pronounced bifid condition. Combined observations from this and several other investigations suggest that a combination of variation in the spinalis cervicis muscle and behavioral patterns associated with cervical load may provide the best explanation for the shape variation in the cervical spinous process. Clin. Anat. 30:894-900, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Experimental neck muscle pain increase pressure pain threshold over cervical facet joints

Abstract Aims Evaluate pressure pain threshold (PPT) over cervical facet joints before and after injection of experimental pain in the trapezius and multifidus muscles. Methods Fourteen healthy subjects (6 women) received randomized ultrasound-guided injections of hypertonic saline (5.8%), in the right multifidus muscle medial to C4/C5 facet joint and in the right trapezius muscle at the midpoint between C7 spinous process and acromion. The saline-induced pain intensity was assessed on a VAS scale. Before and during saline-induced pain PPTs were assessed by pressure algometry bilaterally over C2/C3 and C5/C6 facet joints. Three-way repeated-measures ANOVA with factors PPT location, injection site, and time was used for analysis. Post-hoc analysis was done by Bonferroni. Results Saline-induced trapezius muscle pain increased PPTs over all facet joints (P &lt; 0.05) compared with before pain. Saline-induced multifidus muscle pain increased PPTs bilaterally over C2/C3 facet joints and over the left C5/C6 facet joint (P &lt; 0.05) compared with before pain. Conclusions Trapezius muscle pain increased PPT over assessed facet joints. Similar results were found for multifidus muscle pain except for the right C5/C6 facet joint, which was close to the injection site. Such findings may reflect descending inhibitory control acting on structures furthest away from the painful structure.

Sagittal balance is correlated with Parkinson's Disease clinical parameters: an overview of spinopelvic alignment on 175 consecutive cases.

The aim of this study was to describe the disease-related sagittal balance changes in relation to the sacro-pelvic morphology of Parkinson's Disease patients with different duration of disease. One hundred and seventy-five consecutive Parkinson's Disease (PD) patients (102 males, 73 females; age: 55-83years) participated in the cross-sectional study. The clinical assessment included: Hoehn Yahr (H&Y) score; Tinetti score; plumb line (PL) distance from the spinous process of C7, L3 and S1 and kyphosis apex. Lumbar lordosis (LL), thoracic kyphosis (TK), spinosacral (SSA) and spinopelvic (SPA) angles, spinal tilt, pelvic incidence (PI), sacral slope (SS) and pelvic tilt (PT) were radiographically assessed. Spinosacral and spinopelvic were correlated with the duration of disease and Tinetti score, but not with age. We found a positive correlation between LL and both SSA and SPA. TK was significantly correlated with LL but not with pelvic parameters, while PI with SS and LL. Female gender, high PI and high LL together with a low PL-C7 distance can be considered as protective factors for spinal imbalance and fall risk; negative factors are represented by male gender, longer disease duration, higher H&Y Class, and low PL-L3 distance. Looking at the pelvis is revealing new important insights in spinal disease management, both surgical and rehabilitative.

Central cord syndrome from blast injury after gunshot wound to the spine: a case report and a review of the literature.

Central Cord Syndrome (CCS) is the most common of the spinal cord injury syndromes. Few cases have been presented with gunshot wound (GSW) as a cause of a central cord syndrome, and none, to our knowledge, has been presented without any evidence of central canal bullet/bone fragments. A 27-year-old male suffered two close-range gunshot wounds, one to the left neck and one to the left shoulder. CT scan showed C5 spinous process fracture and paraspinal muscle hemorrhage without evidence of central canal stenosis or bullet/bone fragments. Physical examination showed severe weakness and dysesthesias in bilateral upper extremities and mild weakness in bilateral lower extremities. Diagnosis of central cord syndrome was made. He was treated conservatively and started inpatient rehabilitation. Four months post injury, the patient had almost full recovery with only left proximal arm and bilateral distal hand weakness. Only four cases of CCS caused by GSW have been reported in the literature. Some suggested algorithms exist regarding the management of these patients, but still cases should be individualized depending on the specific nature of their presentation. The prognosis for patients with CCS tends to be favorable in regaining sensory, bladder, bowel, gross motor function and ambulation, but fine motor skills may remain impaired.

The cervical spine of Australopithecus sediba

Cervical vertebrae are rare in the early hominin fossil record, presenting a challenge for understanding the evolution of the neck and head carriage in hominin evolution. Here, we examine the cervical vertebrae of Australopithecus sediba, which unlike other South African taxa is known from associated cervical vertebrae. The A. sediba cervical vertebrae exhibit human-like values for wedging, pedicle cross-sectional areas, and articular facet heights, indicating reduced ventral loading relative to African apes. These features combine with a pattern of vertebral body bone distribution and caudally progressive size expansion suggesting a mode of cervical lordosis, load mitigation, and head carriage similar to humans and distinct from the cantilevered mode of head carriage of the extant African great apes. Yet these derived features in A. sediba are accompanied by ape-like vertebral body and dorsal pillar sizes, articular facet orientation, and uncinate process morphology signaling reduced lateral and rotational coupled movements between vertebral elements and indicate a considerably stiffer neck than in humans. A primitively long and horizontally-oriented C7 spinous process is likely related to a prognathic viscerocranium, although the complimentary C3 spinous process is short, implying large moments emanating from scapular and shoulder elevators rather than large muscles of head stabilization. Cross-sectional spinous process shape and robust anterior tubercles similarly signal increased arm elevation consistent with climbing behavior in corroboration with arboreal signatures previously observed in the shoulder, arms, and hand of A. sediba. Spinal canal shape and size suggests that A. sediba lacked the cervical spinal cord enlargement of Homo that confers humans with enhanced motor control to the upper limbs. The cervical spine of A. sediba thus presents a mosaic of primitive and derived characters, with anatomical features relating to neck posture and head carriage mirroring humans juxtaposed with most other aspects of functional anatomy that resemble chimpanzees.