Spinach Research Articles

Biosynthesis of Iron Nanoparticles from Spinacia Oleracea and its Application in Wastewater Treatment

Water quality and purification issues may be resolved with the aid of "nanotechnology." Due to their prompt responsiveness and effectiveness in eradicating contaminants, along with their capacity to tackle groundwater issues by implementing a permeable reactive barrier utilizing zero-valent iron, zero-valent iron nanoparticles find extensive application in environmental remediation. These nanoparticles, containing zero-valent iron, were produced by synthesizing a metal salt solution with an extract obtained from Spinacia oleracea leaves. In this current study, the plant extract was mixed with a metal salt solution at a predetermined ratio to generate zero-valent iron nanoparticles (FeNP) either at room temperature or via the hydrothermal method. Phase-contrast microscopy and UV-visible spectroscopy were employed to scrutinize the nanoparticles generated. To our knowledge, this study represents the initial exploration of the efficacy of zero-valent iron nanoparticles derived from Spinacia oleracea leaf extract for treating municipal wastewater. The focus is particularly on assessing their impact on BOD and COD parameters.

Biochemical repercussions of light spectra on nitrogen metabolism in spinach (Spinacia oleracea) under a controlled environment.

Selecting appropriate light spectra of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and optimal nutrient composition fertilizers has become integral to commercial controlled environment agriculture (CEA) platforms. This study explored the impact of three LED light regimes (BR: Blue17%, Green 4%, Red 63%, Far-Red 13% and infrared 3%, BGR; Blue 20%, Green 23%, Red 47%, Far-Red 8% and infrared 2%; and GR; Blue 25%, Green 41%, Red 32%, and Far-Red 2%) and nitrogen levels (3.6 and 14.3 mM N) on spinach (Spinacea oleracea). Under limited nitrogen (3.6 mM), BGR light increased the fresh shoot (32%) and root (39%) biomass than BR, suggesting additional green light's impact on assimilating photosynthates under suboptimal nitrogen availability. Reduced chlorophyll (a and b) and carotenoid accumulation, electron transport rate (ETR), and higher oxalates under limited nitrogen availability highlighted the adverse effects of red light (BR) on spinach productivity. Increased activities of nitrogen-associated enzymes (GOGAT; Glutamate synthase, GDH; NADH-Glutamate dehydrogenase, NR; Nitrate reductase, and GS; Glutamine synthetase) in spinach plants under BGR light further validated the significance of green light in nitrogen assimilation. Amino acid distributions remained unchanged across the light spectra, although limited nitrogen availability significantly decreased the percent distribution of glutamine and aspartic acid. Overall, this study demonstrated the favorable impacts of additional green light on spinach productivity, as demonstrated under BGR, than GR alone in response to nitrogen perturbation. However, the exact mechanisms underlying these impacts still need to be unveiled. Nevertheless, these outcomes provided new insights into our understanding of light spectra on spinach nitrogen metabolism.

Cellulose-based sustainable packaging of leafy vegetables: an experimental study on the shelf life of baby spinach

A novel bio-based and compostable cellulose film (NF) was studied for the packaging of fresh baby spinach, with results compared to a petroleum-derived non-biodegradable polypropylene (PP) film, currently used to market the same product. Baby spinach is a leafy vegetable with high metabolic activity. A preliminary analysis of the product respiration rate was conducted to select the cellulose film grade. The chosen NF film ensures the optimal O2 and CO2 concentration in the headspace, performing even better than the conventional PP film. In fact, when the leafy vegetable is packed within PP, after 15 days of storage, no equilibrium value of gas concentration was reached, which, upon longer storage, might cause anaerobic conditions and off-odor development. Baby spinach leaves packed with NF film showed a slower decrement in texture properties and total antioxidant capacity during storage with respect to control samples, but also a larger weight loss, mostly due to the high-water permeability of the cellulose. However, water condensation upon storage was noted for both packaging materials. Analysis of mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of the NF film before, during, and after use probed no deterioration of material properties, confirming the potentiality of this polymer for sustainable packaging of fresh leafy vegetables.

Effect of spent tea waste, compost and biochar on some growth parameters and concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) under salinity stress

Salinity is a major environmental problem that adversely affects plant growth by increasing soil osmotic pressure and disrupting plant nutrition. Using organic amendments is a viable tool for reducing physiological and morphological effects of excessive soil salinity on plants. To show the impacts of tea waste, compost and biochar on nutrient status and growth parameters of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) raised in salinity conditions, this study has employed factorial CRD with two treatments involving soil salinity (2.5 and 8 dS m−1) and organic materials (spent tea waste (STW), spent tea waste compost (STWC) and spent tea waste biochar (STWB)) at 0 and 3% w/w in three replications. As soil salinity increased from 2.5 to 8 dS m−1, fresh weight and dry matter production decreased by 31.5% and 30.4%, respectively. Phosphorous and potassium concentrations in plant tissue also decreased significantly due to the increase in salinity. Organic amendments (except STW) due to their physicochemical properties increased the nutrients uptake and growth parameters of the plant. Compared to other amendments, biochar reduced salinity effects on plant growth more effectively, which is possibly due to its high nutrient adsorbing and water holding capacity. In saline conditions, the highest potassium to sodium ratio belonged to the biochar treatment, which was 3.22 and 2.78 times greater than spent tea waste and compost, respectively. Therefore, it was preferred to change the spent tea waste into biochar before being used as soil amendment.

Influence of Soil and Nutrient Management Practices on Crop Productivity and Quality in High Tunnel Organic Leafy Green Production

Despite the growing interest in high tunnel organic vegetable production, limited information is available regarding optimizing nutrient management for organic leafy greens. This 3-year study examined the impacts of cowpea cover crop as well as different organic fertilizers and composts on yield, leaf mineral nutrient content, and phytochemical properties of organic leafy greens produced in high tunnels under Florida sandy soil conditions. The experiment was arranged in a split-split-plot design with three replications. The whole plots consisted of a cowpea (Vigna unguiculata ‘Iron & Clay’) cover crop and a weedy fallow control, with fertilization treatments in the subplots, including preplant application of granular fertilizer vs. weekly injection of liquid fish fertilizer at the same seasonal rates of nitrogen (112 kg/ha), phosphorus (9.8 kg/ha), and potassium (74.4 kg/ha). The sub-subplots included yard waste-based compost (22.4 Mt/ha), cow manure-based compost (22.4 Mt/ha), vermicompost (5.6 Mt/ha), and no compost control. Cowpea was broadcasted (112 kg/ha) in early July or mid-August and terminated 51 to 53 days after seeding. Pac choi (Brassica rapa var. chinensis ‘Mei Qing Choi’) was transplanted in mid-Sep. or mid-Oct. and harvested after 33 to 36 days. Baby spinach (Spinacia oleracea ‘Corvair’) or baby leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa ‘Outredgeous’) was direct seeded subsequently as a catch crop. Each experimental unit remained in the same location across the 3 years of the study. Cover cropping had little influence on yields, leaf mineral nutrients, ascorbic acid content, total phenolics, and total antioxidant capacity of pac choi and baby spinach/lettuce. Compared with preplant application of the granular organic fertilizer, weekly liquid organic fertigation improved pac choi marketable yield and dry weight by 16.8% and 5.4% on average, respectively, and enhanced leaf nitrogen and phosphorus contents on a dry weight basis. Relative to the no compost control, yard waste compost consistently improved marketable yields of pac choi by 11.6% on average and led to higher yields of the baby spinach/lettuce catch crop in years 1 and 3, suggesting that compost applications may enhance seasonal nutrient availability to better meet crop demand. However, compost application exhibited inconsistent effects on crop mineral nutrient and phytochemical contents across the years, which could be attributed to the different nutrient compositions of the composts applied in each season, as well as the legacy effects from the previous season. Furthermore, the compost benefits may be influenced by the fertilization program as indicated by their interaction effects observed in this study.

Modulations of functional traits of Spinacia oleracea plants exposed to cadmium stress by using H2S as an antidote: a regulatory mechanism.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-023-01389-3.

Organic Amendment for Disinfecting Soil Alters the Metabolites in Spinacia oleracea

Solar radiation and the incorporation of compost into soil is a practice for disinfecting soil that could have some other effects on spinach cultivation. The quality of spinach leaves after two types of soil disinfection, non-amended soil (NAS) and compost-amended soil (CAS), was compared in order to find biomarkers of both types of disinfection. These practices did not show significant differences in nutrient composition (N-P-K) compared to the control soil (CS). However, the amount of harmful nutrients such as NO2− was significantly lower in CAS (65.74 mg kg−1 FW) and NAS (49.99 mg kg−1 FW) than in CS (114.39 mg kg−1 FW). In addition, NO3− levels did not exceed the EU-recommended limit (<3500 mg kg−1 FW). Both types of disinfected soils produced higher concentrations of total phenols and more individual flavonoids in spinach leaves than the control. Combined chemometric analysis of the HRAMS data showed different clustering depending on the type of disinfection (NAS and CAS). Fifteen metabolite compounds could be identified, seven of which are beneficial for health and were more abundant in spinach grown in CAS compared to that grown in NAS or CS. Such beneficial metabolites measured with non-target analysis as markers of CAS-grown spinach. However, more studies are necessary in order to determine the differences between the metabolites of spinach grown in NAS or CAS.

Fates of attached E. coli o157:h7 on intact leaf surfaces revealed leafy green susceptibility

Leafy greens, especially lettuce, are repeatedly linked to foodborne outbreaks. This paper studied the susceptibility of different leafy greens to human pathogens. Five commonly consumed leafy greens, including romaine lettuce, green-leaf lettuce, baby spinach, kale, and collard, were selected by their outbreak frequencies. The behavior of E. coli O157:H7 87-23 on intact leaf surfaces and in their lysates was investigated. Bacterial attachment was positively correlated with leaf surface roughness and affected by the epicuticular wax composition. At room temperature, E. coli O157:H7 had the best growth potentials on romaine and green-leaf lettuce surfaces. The bacterial growth was positively correlated with stomata size and affected by epicuticular wax compositions. At 37 °C, E. coli O157:H7 87-23 was largely inhibited by spinach and collard lysates, and it became undetectable in kale lysate after 24 h of incubation. Kale and collard lysates also delayed or partially inhibited the bacterial growth in TSB and lettuce lysate at 37 °C, and they sharply reduced the E. coli O157:H7 population on green leaf lettuce at 4 °C. In summary, the susceptibility of leafy greens to E. coli O157:H7 is determined by a produce-specific combination of physiochemical properties and temperature.

Quantitative analysis of multiclass pesticide residues in spinach, Iran

Pesticide residues in agricultural crops, particularly vegetables, are a global concern due to their adverse impacts on human health. As spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) is among the valuable leafy vegetables in the Iranian food basket, this survey was conducted to assess the presence of 108 pesticide residues (including organophosphorus, organochlorines, carbamates, dicarboximides, strobilurin, triazine, pyrethroids, etc.) in spinach samples, to ensure consumer safety. A total of 11 spinach samples were collected, during a ten-month period, from local markets of four different cities of Iran (Isfahan, Khash, Sari, and Karaj). Quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) technique was applied for sample pretreatment. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS) method was applied for quantification of multi-pesticide residues in spinach samples. The obtained findings displayed that all the pesticide residues in the samples were below the LODs, and also much lower than the MRLs (maximum residue limit) set by EU/Codex. The findings showed that spinach is in a good status in terms of pesticide residues. Nevertheless, a continuous screening program is highly recommended because of the persistent nature and toxicity of applied pesticides to human health, so that any inconsistency with the maximum residues limits standards can be identified immediately and relevant actions are taken.

Biochar and Cd Alter the Degradation and Transport of Kasugamycin in Soil and Spinach

Biochar has been widely studied to reduce multiple contaminant sources in one matrix (e.g., several heavy metals in soils), yet less attention has been paid to accelerating pesticide degradation while in the presence of any heavy metals, such as when kasugamycin (KSM) and cadmium (Cd) are both present in soil. While KSM has low toxicity compared to other pesticides, it can be a potential health risk when applied to vegetable crops, especially when KSM is used or overapplied to achieve rapid reductions in insect and disease pressure. The degradation behavior of KSM (2 kg ha−1) in the presence of Cd (20 mg kg−1) and biochar (5% by wt.) when growing spinach (Spinacia oleracea) was studied. The biochar increased spinach shoot and root biomass by 51.0–54.8% and 24.4–39.0%, respectively, compared to the KSM treatment only. Compared to the treatments that did not receive biochar, the biochar application increased the KSM degradation in the soil by 8.4–68.4% and, subsequently, less KSM was absorbed by the spinach roots (18.0–48.4%) and shoots (33.0–33.2%). The KSM degradation rate, as a function of soil depth, was enhanced in the presence of Cd. The biochar also effectively decreased the KSM concentration with soil depth, reducing downward KSM migration. The KSM degradation, increased by the biochar, led to smaller organic moieties and some macromolecular organic phases. In soils that are contaminated with Cd and where vegetables are raised, biochar may be used as an environmentally friendly proponent for increasing KSM degradation, reducing KSM downward transport and, thus, protecting environmental and human health.

Improving quality parameters of spinach by adjusting light spectra under moderate water deprivation conditions

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) is a highly valuable leafy vegetable, abundant in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, offering various health benefits such as enhancing cardiovascular health, reducing inflammation, and aiding digestion. Consequently, it is crucial to effectively cultivate and maintain spinach's quality. Light plays a pivotal role in the growth and development of plants, including spinach, where different light qualities can influence its morpho-physiological traits and overall quality. To explore this, an experiment was conducted, using three distinct LED lighting sets for spinach cultivation. Light 1 emphasized blue light, Light 2 served as the standard white light control, and Light 3 focused more on red light with occasional brief UV-C flashes. Additionally, mild water deprivation was induced using 2.5% polyethylene glycol (PEG). The results revealed that using a high red-to-blue light ratio with intermittent UV-C radiation significantly reduced various growth parameters of spinach, such as root length, shoot length, root volume, fresh and dry root and shoot weight, as well as total and relative chlorophyll contents, when compared to the control group. Furthermore, water deprivation had a negative impact on spinach's growth, affecting shoot and root length, and fresh and dry weight in all light qualities, proving to be fatal under Light 3 conditions. Therefore, it is essential to carefully select appropriate light qualities throughout the plant's life cycle to enhance the quality of spinach, especially when mild water deprivation is involved. Opting for a higher blue-to-red light ratio was found to be somewhat beneficial in improving the overall quality of spinach.

Estimation of above ground biomass, biophysical and quality parameters of spinach (Spinacia Oleracea L.) using Sentinel-2 to support the supply chain

The estimation of biophysical and biochemical parameters using Sentinel-2 satellite imagery provides crucial information to support agronomic management and logistics for the processing industry, yet this approach has been poorly explored for vegetable crops, such as spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.). For this reason, Sentinel-2 satellite images were used to estimate biophysical and biochemical parameters of open field spinach crops (Above Ground Biomass (AGB), Canopy Nitrogen Content (CNC), Leaf Area Index (LAI), Canopy Chlorophyll Content (CCC), Leaf Dry Matter Content (LDMC), Leaf Nitrogen Content (LNC), Leaf Nitrate Content (LNO3−C) and Leaf Chlorophyll Content (LCC)). Spinach samples were collected in northern Italy in two different growing seasons (2020 – 2021) to measure biophysical and biochemical parameters which were linearly regressed via linear regression k-fold to five vegetation indices retrieved from Sentinel-2 images (MCARI, NDRE, NDVI, NDWI and SR). The AGB estimation models were also validated at field scale using historical data, totally independent from those used for the model calibration, collected by the processing industry between 2018 and 2021. Overall, canopy-level parameters (AGB, LAI, CNC, CCC) were estimated more accurately than leaf-level parameters (LDMC, LNC, LNO3−C, LCC). The highest accuracy was observed for the estimation of the canopy-scale parameter AGB (nRMSE = 9.48 %, R2 = 0.87) using MCARI, while the lowest accuracy was observed for the estimation of the leaf-scale parameter LCC (nRMSE = 29.24 %, R2 = 0.01) using NDWI. At field level, the validation of the AGB estimation models showed the highest performance using SR (nRMSE = 19.69 %, R2 = 0.21). This work demonstrates that using Sentinel-2 satellite images, it is feasible to estimate biophysical and biochemical parameters useful for monitoring the health of spinach crops for both agronomic management and the industrial supply chain.

Elemental concentrations in green vegetables from the perspective of urolithiasis risk

Although green vegetables are valuable sources of essential elements, and are safe in that they lack harmful elements, they are high in oxalic acid, increasing the risk of urolithiasis. We performed elemental analyses on spinach (Spinacia oleracea L), Malabar nightshade (Basella alba), and water Morning Glory (Ipomoea aquatica), which contain large amounts of oxalic acid, and compared the data to those of Japanese mustard spinach (Brassica rapa var. perviridis), which is the second most commonly consumed green vegetable (after spinach) in Japan. We focused on concentrations of Ca, Mg, and Sr that suppress the formation of ureteral stones (calculi). The calcium concentration in spinach was [Formula: see text]g/g in leaves and [Formula: see text]g/g in stalks, and the level in Japanese mustard spinach were [Formula: see text]g/g in leaves and [Formula: see text]g/g in stalks. The overall Sr concentration in Japanese mustard spinach was thus 10-fold higher than in spinach, but the Mg concentration was lower than that in spinach. The concentrations of Ca and Sr in Malabar nightshade and water Morning Glory were 3- to 5-fold higher than in spinach. As the former vegetables are consumed much less often than spinach, the risk of urolithiasis is low. We explored how the concentrations of these elements changed after boiling.

Iron content in leafy plants cultivated in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Iron deficiency anemia is one of the main health issues that has an impact on cognitive function, physical ability, immune function, and reproductive performance. Therefore, this study focused on the determination of iron content in leafy plants cultivated in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the average daily intake of iron via consumption of these plants. The plant samples were prepared by wet digestion with nitric acid (HNO3), and iron content was determined using flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). The mean concentration of Fe ranged from 41.97 mg/kg for Brassica oleracea var. acephala to 338.73 mg/kg for Spinacia oleracea. Daily intakes for different leafy plants were also calculated. The leafy plants were arranged by daily iron intake in the following decreasing order Spinacia oleracea > Beta vulgaris > Atriplex hortensis > Urtica dioica > Brassica oleracea var. acephala. Results from this study indicate that leafy plants can be a significant source of iron. The findings conclusively suggest that our local leafy plants are good source of iron through diet.

Zero-valent iron reduces cadmium and arsenic accumulation in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.)

Cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) soil contamination poses significant problems for crop production worldwide. Zero-valent iron (Fe0) is a reactive material with reducing power capable of stabilizing toxic elements, including heavy metals and metalloids. In this study, we examined the effect of Fe0 application on Cd and As accumulation in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) grown in Cd- or As-contaminated soil. Fe0 soil application reduced Cd and As concentrations in spinach shoots and/or roots, and decreased their availability in soil, which may have affected their accumulation in spinach. Additionally, we examined the forms of soil Cd and As using the sequential extraction method. The potential availability of Cd and As forms in soils for plant root is: exchangeable > iron-manganese-oxide-bound > organic-matter-bound > free-oxide-occluded > residual. Fe0 application increased Cd and As distribution in the free-oxide-occluded fraction. Additionally, Fe0 application decreased As distribution in the iron-manganese-oxide-bound fraction while tended to decrease Cd in the organic-matter-bound fraction and increase it in the iron-manganese-oxide-bound fraction. Thus, Fe0 application can be effective in reducing Cd and As availability in their contaminated soils. Meanwhile, this study showed that Fe0 application inhibited the growth of spinach in Cd-contaminated soil. The unfavorable alterations caused by Fe0 in the contaminated soil should also be investigated in the future.

Single injection by LC-ESI-MS/MS for simultaneous determination of organophosphate tri- and di-esters in plant tissue based on ultrasonic-assisted sequential extraction and single-step purification

A novel methodology based on ultrasonic-assisted sequential extraction, dispersive-SPE purification, and single-injection on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is proposed, for the first time, to simultaneously measure 14 tri-OPEs and 9 di-OPEs in plant tissues. The samples were successively ultrasonicated with a mixture of hexane:dichloromethane (1:1, v/v) and 8% acetic acid in acetonitrile for extracting tri- and di-OPEs purified with graphitized carbon black and quantitated on LC-MS/MS at the same time. The recoveries of targeted tri- and di-OPEs in the matrix spike ranged from 66% to 120% and 71% to 110% respectively. The proposed method was validated by processing eight types of common vegetables including spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), lettuce (Lactuca sativa), carrot (Daucus carota var. sativa Hoffm.), sweet potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), and cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata), with the recoveries of surrogates ranging from 84% to 98%.

Mechanism and synergistic effect of sulfadiazine (SDZ) and cadmium toxicity in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) and its alleviation through zinc fortification

Cadmium (Cd) and antibiotic’s tendency to accumulate in edible plant parts and fertile land is a worldwide issue. The combined effect of antibiotics and heavy metals on crops was analyzed, but not mitigation of their toxicity. This study investigated the potential of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) to alleviate the SDZ and Cd toxicity (alone/combined) to promote spinach growth. Results revealed that the ZnO 200 mg L−1 spray decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) 14%, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) 13%, and electrolyte leakage (EL) 7%, and increased the superoxide dismutase (SOD) 8%, peroxidase (POD) 25%, catalase (CAT) 39% and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) 12% in spinach leaves under combined SDZ+Cd (25 mg Kg−1 +50 mg Kg−1) stress compared to ZnO 100 mg L−1 spray. Likewise, ZnO NPs 200 mg L−1 spray enhanced the zinc (Zn) 97%, iron (Fe) 86%, magnesium (Mg) 35%, manganese (Mn) 8%, and potassium (K) 23% in shoots under combined SDZ+Cd (25 mg Kg−1 +50 mg Kg−1) stress compared to ZnO 100 mg L−1 spray. Further, ZnO 200 mg L−1 spray reduced Cd uptake in roots by 9% and shoots 15% under combined SDZ+Cd (25 mg Kg−1 +50 mg Kg−1) stress compared to ZnO 100 mg L−1. Overall, ZnO NPs alleviated the SDZ and Cd toxicity and enhanced spinach growth in all treatments.

Comparison of Halophyte and Glycophyte Plants from the Amaranthaceae-Chenopodiaceae Family in Their Ion-Exchange Properties of Polymeric Matrix of Cell Walls

Ion-exchanging properties of the polymeric matrix of the cell walls isolated from leaves were examined. The glycophyte 55-day-old plants of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L., cv. Matador) grown on a nutrient solution containing 0.5, 150, or 250 mM NaCl and the halophyte seepweed (Suaeda altissima (L.) Pall.) of the same age grown at 0.5, 250, or 750 mM NaCl were compared. The ion-exchange capacity of the cell walls was estimated at different pH and ionic strength of a solution. In the structure of the leaf cell walls, three types of cation-exchange groups were found, namely, two types of carboxylic groups (one of them belongs to galacturonic acid residue) and phenolic OH-groups. The quantities of the groups of each type and their ionization constants were determined. The qualitative composition of the ion-exchange groups in the leaf cell walls was found to be uniform in both plant species regardless of their nutrition. However, the quantity of the carboxylic groups of galacturonic acid depended on the ambient salt concentration in a different manner in the glycophyte and halophyte. This change in the composition of functional groups of cell wall polymers was more pronounced in the halophyte and is apparently one of the responses of these plants to salinization. The sharp increase in the NaCl concentration in the medium leads to a decrease in pH in the extracellular water space due to ion-exchange reactions between sodium ions coming from the external medium and protons of the ionized carboxylic groups of the cell walls. The results are discussed in the aspect of participation of the leaf cell walls in plant responses to salinization.

Estimation of the Impact of Climate Change on Spinach Cultivation Areas in Türkiye

Climate change is one of the most important problems that needs to be dealt with in Türkiye and worldwide. One of the sectors that will be most affected by climate change is the agriculture sector. For this reason, it is very important to adapt to changing climatic conditions, take the necessary precautions, and ensure sustainability in the agricultural sector today. The land suitability for spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) cultivation, a vegetable that is rich in nutrients, has never been investigated in Türkiye. Therefore, it is important to investigate the suitability of spinach cultivation areas in Türkiye in the case of possible climatic changes in future years. The most important original value of this research is that three separate climate change prediction models were used, as opposed to using only a single climate change prediction model, to determine the land suitability for spinach cultivation. The aim of this study is to determine the land suitability for spinach in line with possible climate change prediction models and scenarios in Türkiye and its evaluation by comparing it with the current model. To achieve this goal, HADGEM2_ES, CNRM_CM5, and MPI_ESM_LR climate models and RCP 4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios were used, and land suitability was determined and evaluated with the help of Ecocrop integrated into DIVA-GIS for spinach in Türkiye currently and in the 2050s. The results found that there will be decreases in suitable, very suitable, and excellent areas for spinach cultivation and increases in not-suited, very marginal, and marginal areas. Considering the possible temperature and precipitation changes, it has been observed that the areas in which spinach can be grown in Türkiye in the 2050s will be negatively affected by climate change due to the increasing temperature and decreasing precipitation in general, and solutions are proposed in this study to ensure sustainability.

Effect of light intensity on growth and chlorophyll content of Horenso (Spinacia oleracea) plants

Horenso plant or Japanese spinach (Spinacia oleracea) is a vegetable plant that is often used for consumption because it contains precursor, vitamins and minerals that are beneficial to health. Plant productivity can be increased by environmental engineering through the use of shade because sunlight influences directly through photosynthesis and indirectly in plant growth and development due to direct metabolic responses. This study aims to determine the effect of light intensity on plant growth and plant chlorophyll content and to see the correlation between chlorophyll content and plant growth of Spinacia oleracea. The research was conducted by experimental method with 3 differences in light intensity namely A = 6000 lux, B = 3000 lux, and C = 2000 lux and 3 differences in shade namely A = clear plastic shade, B = opaque plastic shade and C = white plastic shade. Chlorophyll measurement is used by using the spectrophotometer method. Horenso plant growth is measured by the increase in plant height and the width of the leaf diameter. Data analysis used the ANOVA test to identify significant differences in each treatment.The experimental results showed the value of P = 0.728 while the value of α= 0.05, that there is no effect of light intensity on the growth of Horenso plants and The results of the correlation test showed that the value of P>α. The value of P = 0.704 while the value of α = 0.05, there is no significant relationship between the growth of horenso plants and plant chlorophyll content.