Spicy Aroma Research Articles

Profiling of Aroma-Active Compounds in Ylang-Ylang Essential Oils by Aroma Extract Dilution Analysis (AEDA) and Chemometric Methods.

The aroma-active compounds in the extra, first, and third grades of ylang-ylang essential oils (YYEO) from Comoros and Madagascar were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with olfactometry (GC-MS/O) using an aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) technique. In the previous study, the authors investigated differences in volatile compound profiles between YYEO of different grades and regions using GC coupled with a flame ionization detector (FID) and GC-MS. This study follows up with identification of the aroma-active compounds present in YYEO of various grades from both origins and to profile the aroma of those oils. For the first time, principal component analysis (PCA) on AEDA logarithmic flavor dilution (LFD) data was performed, in comparison with the corresponding PCA on GC-FID-MS data. Based on AEDA data, 21 aroma-active compounds were found across all samples and grades of YYEO, with 8 common ones previously identified by GC-FID. Linalool had the highest odor activity and is the major component of YYEO, followed by geraniol, although the latter only appeared as a much smaller peak in the chromatogram. Other trace compounds such as eugenol and vanillin were also found to be significant to the aroma of YYEO. Using PCA on resulting LFD data, YYEO from Comoros were found to have spicier odor qualities as compared to those from Madagascar. The main contributors that determine the difference in a spicy aroma profile of Comoros and Madagascar oils are vanillin, methyl eugenol, and trans-cinnamyl acetate.

Synthesis and Olfactory Properties of Seco-Analogues of Lilac Aldehydes.

Lilac aldehydes are considered as principal olfactory molecules of lilac flowers. We have designed, prepared, and evaluated a set of racemic seco-analogues of such natural products. The synthesis employs commercially available α-chloroketones as substrates that are transformed in four steps to target compounds. Their qualitative olfactory analysis revealed that the opening of the tetrahydrofuran ring leads to a vanishing of original flowery scent with the emergence of spicy aroma accompanied by green notes, and/or fruity aspects of novel seco-analogues. These results suggest the important osmophoric role of THF moiety for the generation of the typical flowery aroma associated with lilac aldehydes.

Dimensions of culinary tourism and hospitability in Golden Triangle of India

"ABSTRACT. Purpose: Delhi, Agra and Jaipur form the golden triangle of India. This tourist triangle is designed to up-sell in the market with lucrative offers. “Palace on Wheels” is a luxury train that runs on this route and is targeted for foreign clientele with its extravagance segment. These three destinations have their significance due to the presence of historical monuments and UNESCO world heritage sites i.e., Qutub Minar, India Gate, Tajmahal, and many more. These places also offer an enormous variety of food and beverage with warm hospitality to relieve the tired tourists. The gourmet dishes of Golden Triangle are a must to try as it dates to the traditional cooking combined with a spicy aroma and soothing beverages. The paper is structured to judge the culinary facet and warm hospitality of the Golden Triangle. The main objective is to find out the impact of traditional food in attracting travellers. It will also identify the food trail experiences in enhancing a niche segment of buyers for culinary tourism. Design/methodology/approach: The research is exploratory and draws on food and beverage culinary experience delivery in the Golden Triangle. The exploratory research will judge the effectiveness of food tours and the warm hospitality extended to food tourists. Findings: The research will examine how Culinary Tourism and Hospitality in the Golden Triangle of India can form a niche segment of food and beverage buyers. How it enhances the customer experience with hospitable conduct. The study will highlight the benefits of culinary tourism and hospitality. Practical implications: The paper recommends the concepts of food and beverage culinary tourism experience for creating a niche segment of buyers as well as attracting potential buyers with its approach. The research will synthesize the factors to improve customer interest in taking food and beverage tourism. Originality/value: The research sought to address the advantages of curating food and beverage tourists in the golden triangle of India. It will also address how food and beverage tours can influence culinary tourism. Keywords: Culinary tourism, hospitality, traditional food, secret recipes, niche segment. JEL Classification: L83, Z31 "

CHARACTERISTICS OF SMOKED CATFISH MINCED JERKY (Pangasius hypophthalmus) WITH FLAVOR VARIANTS

This study aims to determine the characteristics of smoked catfish minced jerky with flavor variants. The treatments given consisted of D 1 (jerky without adding brown sugar and chilies), D 2 (jerky with the addition of 10% coconut brown sugar) and D 3 (jerky with 10% addition of green chilies). The analysis parameters observed were organoleptic test (appearance, aroma, texture and taste), chemical test (moisture, protein, fat, ash content) and Total Plate Count test. Smoked Catfish Minced Jerky with 10% addition of green chilies was most favored by consumer acceptance with 46 panelists (57.5%), with characteristics of appearance (dark brown), aroma (typical jerky and spicy aroma of green bird's eye chilies), texture (crispy and compact), and taste (savory and spicy). The average value of moisture, protein, fat, ash, and Total Plate Count was 10.94%, 21.19%, 2.30%, 0.46%, 6.7×10 3 colonies/g, respectively.

The effect of essential oils on quality and safety parameters of meat during its storage

This article researches the basic principles of mechanism for finding the concentrations of essential oils (EO) which are efficient for antimicrobial action, when used as a natural alternative to synthetic analogues. The effect of EO of rosemary, sage, garlic, laurel, cloves, basil and thyme on the structural components of meat, its physical and chemical, organoleptic and microbiological quality indices was studied. The effect of EO on duration of microorganisms’ growth phases is analyzed. It is shown that the reasonable concentration of the essential-oil mixture (EOM) is equal to 0.1%, since at this concentration the optimal inhibition of saprophytic microflora was provided with satisfactory organoleptic quality indices (“taste peculiar for this type of product”, “pleasant fragrance”, “spicy aroma”). The analysis of histological structural changes in muscle tissue showed that application of EOM slows down autolytic processes, which correlates with the data obtained in research of the specific electrical conductivity in water extracts from the muscle tissue. The autolysis process in the control samples was more intensive in comparison with the experimental samples stored in the EOM. Thus, by 84th hour of storage in the control sample the basophilic staining of the samples slices was observed, as well as almost complete disappearance of the striation of muscle fibers. In the muscle tissue slices the disintegration of individual fragments into myofibrils, and myofibrils into sarcomeres, was observed in form of a granular mass, sometimes enclosed in endomysium. The meat fibers were deformed and their separation was observed. The same changes with the studied samples stored in the EOM occurred only after 204 hours of storage. The above studies of changes in the specific electrical conductivity of water extract from meat during storage showed the presence of complexes of EOM components formed with proteins and lipids of muscle tissue. The obtained data are confirmed by histological studies. Thus, the use of EOM allowed elongation of the cold storage period of semi-finished natural lump products by 2.6 times, which proves the practical benefits of its use in the meat-processing industry.

Effect of some winemaking factors on rotundone levels of Pelaverga di Verduno wines

Pelaverga di Verduno Protected Designation of Origin is a red wine obtained from Pelaverga piccolo, an autochthonous grape variety grown in Piedmont. This wine is characterized by a light colour and a unique, intense spicy aroma. The analysis of this wine detected a significant concentration of rotundone (approximately 40 ng L−1), which is known to impart a distinctive pepper note and has a very low olfactory threshold (16 ng L−1 in wine). The measured concentrations, well above the perception threshold, could link rotundone directly to the spicy notes highlighted by the sensorial analysis of Pelaverga wines. The impact of certain oenological factors on the concentration of this compound in wine was therefore assessed, showing that moderate amounts of oxygen could lead to a significant increase in the concentration of rotundone in finished wines. Conversely, different doses of sulfur dioxide or storage temperature of the wines had no effect on this compound.

Hayıt (Vitex agnus-castus L.) Ballarının Uçucu Bileşenlerinin ve Duyusal Özelliklerinin Tanımlanması

Bu çalışmada Aydın, Çanakkale, İzmir ve Muğla illerinde üretilen hayıt ballarının bazı fiziksel ve kimyasal özellikleri ile uçucu bileşenlerinin ve duyusal özelliklerinin tanımlanması amaçlanmıştır. Değerlendirilen hayıt ballarında toplam 16 farklı uçucu bileşen belirlenmiştir (4 aldehit, 3 furan, 2 alkol, 2 sülfürlü bileşik, 2 terpen, 1 alkan, 1 benzenik bileşik ve 1 keton). Hayıt ballarının ortak uçucu bileşenlerinin dimetil sülfit, oktan, nonanal, 2-furankarboksaldehit, 2-etil-1-hegzanol, 1-(2-furanil)-etanon, benzaldehit, 5-metil-2-furankarboksaldehit ve benzenasetaldehit olduğu belirlenmiştir. Bütün hayıt ballarında benzenasetaldehit en fazla bulunan uçucu bileşen olup ardından benzaldehit ve 2-furankarboksaldehit gelmektedir. Duyusal değerlendirme sonucunda hayıt ballarında çiçeğimsi, meyvemsi, karamelimsi, acı badem, fermente, hayvanımsı, baharatımsı, vaksımsı ve odunumsu koku karakteri, tatlı ve ekşi tat karakterleri ile burukluk ağız hissi algılanmıştır. Bütün örneklerde çiçeğimsi, meyvemsi, karamelimsi, tatlı ve ekşi karakter yoğun olarak algılanmıştır.

Replacement of Sodium Tripolyphosphate with Iota Carrageenan in the Formulation of Restructured Ostrich Ham.

The influence of iota carrageenan (iota-CGN) as a partial replacement of sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) was investigated on the physical (pH, yield, instrumental color, texture profile analysis), chemical (moisture, protein, total fat, ash, phosphate) and sensory (descriptive analysis, acceptance testing) quality of restructured ostrich ham (95% lean meat plus fat). Treatments consisted of five decreasing levels of STPP (0.70%, 0.53%, 0.35%, 0.18% and 0%) that were simultaneously substituted with five increasing levels of iota-CGN (0%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3% and 0.4%). Cooked yield, hardness, cohesiveness, and gumminess of restructured ostrich ham increased (p ≤ 0.05) with decreasing levels of STPP (and increased levels of iota-CGN). No significant trend in instrumental color measurements or springiness were observed between treatments. Ostrich ham with 0.35% STPP and lower had increased ostrich meat aroma and flavor, while spicy aroma and flavor, mealiness and consumer acceptance decreased. Iota carrageenan can be substituted for STPP (up to 0.35% STPP and 0.2% iota-CGN) to produce reduced STPP ham.

The Impact of Hanseniaspora vineae Fermentation and Ageing on Lees on the Terpenic Aromatic Profile of White Wines of the Albillo Variety.

Hanseniaspora vineae is a non-Saccharomyces yeast that has a powerful impact on the sensory profile of wines. Its effect on the aromatic profile of non-aromatic grape varieties, such as Albillo Mayor (Vitis vinifera, L), during vinification is a useful biotechnology to improve sensory complexity. Fermentation in steel barrels using Hanseniaspora vineae and sequential inoculation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been used to study the formation of terpenes and cell lysis in the production of Albillo white wines. The GC-MS analysis profile shows a significant effect of H. vineae fermentation on the contents of terpenes (≈×3), mainly in linalool (>×3), β-citronellol (>×4), geraniol (>×2) and α-terpineol (≈×2). The contents of several polyoxygenated terpenes and some volatile phenols with a spicy aroma were increased during fermentation. In summary, Hanseniaspora vineae releases a large number of cell wall polysaccharides during fermentation that affect wine palatability and structure. Hanseniaspora vineae is a powerful bio-tool to enhance the fruitiness, floral notes and freshness in non-aromatic white varieties.

Chemical composition, oxidative stability and antiproliferative activity of <em>Anethum graveolens</em> (dill) seed hexane extract

This study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical properties, chemical composition, and anti­proliferative activity of the hexane extract of Anethum graveolens L. (dill) seeds using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Two fractions, namely the lipid fraction (74%) and volatile fraction (26%), were detected. The extract content of the seeds was about 9.4% and the extract had a pleasant spicy aroma. Oleic acid (52%), cis-vaccenic acid (6.2%), linoleic acid (5.5%), and palmitic acid (3.3%) were the key fatty acids in the lipid fraction, while apiol (23%) and d-carvone (2.4%) were the major volatile components. Tocols (tocopherols and tocotrienols) were also detected in the A. Graveolens extract (155 mg/100 g) and b-tocopherol was identified as the major tocol (71%). Dill extract showed a high oxidative stability (induction time = 45.22 h). Furthermore, dill extract showed antiproliferative activity against breast cancer cell lines.

Eugenol isolation of Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) flower

The use of alternative and complementary therapies as a treatment is growing rapidly, one of them is by alternative medicine that uses steam from essential oils / essential oils from various kinds of plants that can be inhaled and smeared to cure various conditions. Clove plants (Syzygium aromaticum) are one of the producers of essential oils that can be used as an alternative treatment for herbs. In clove oil consists of several types of components. The main component possessed by clove is eugenol which has the highest number among other components. Eugenol are important compounds in clove oil. It is a clear liquid to pale yellow compound with a refreshing and spicy aroma like dried clove flowers, giving a distinctive aroma to clove oil. The purpose of this study was to determine the eugenol content of clove flower essential oil. The use of clove flowers in this study is used to improve the competency of local products that in the future can make the outputs of competitive and economical value. This study begins with the distillation process of clove flower water to get oil up to isolation of eugenol. The identification of eugenol with TLC and testing of eugenol levels with GC-MS. The results showed that the essential oil yield was 3.16%, eugenol yield 42.92%, hRf value 11.46 and with grade 97%.©2020 JNSMR UIN Walisongo. All rights reserved.

The characterization of physicochemical, microbiological and sensorial red ginger yogurt during fermentation

This study was aimed to determine the effect of red ginger extract concentration (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1% v/v) and fermentation time on the quality and acidity of yogurt. Yogurt was made from fresh cow milk, Lactobacillus bulgaricus and 2% v/v Streptococcus thermophilus. Operation conditions included fermentation time of 60 hrs and data retrieval every 12 hrs. The results of this study had shown that pH of yogurt was decreasing, while titratable acidity increased during the fermentation time. The addition of red ginger extract did not give a significant effect on the protein content of yogurt. Yogurt with higher concentration of ginger extract increased the spicy aroma and flavor, however its color was similar to the commercial yogurt. At higher concentrations, red ginger displayed antimicrobial and antifungal characteristics, as shown by the decreasing microorganisms counts.

Aroma-active compounds of <i>Melaleuca cajuputi</i> essential oil, a potent flavor on <i>Cajuputs Candy</i>

Melaleuca cajuputi essential oil (MCEO) from Pulau Buru (PBR), Indonesia, has been used as a functional flavor on Cajuputs Candy for years. Our recent study has explored thirteen other alternative MCEO sources to be developed as food flavor. However, not all of the MCEO had similarities to PBR MCEO both in their sensory and volatile profiles. This study aimed to identify the aroma-active compounds which would affect the overall aroma perception of the most- and the least-liked MCEO as a flavor ingredient based on the nasal impact frequency (NIF) method. Initial screening was performed to evaluate the overall liking of thirteen MCEO on Cajuputs Candy through a hedonic test, conducted by seventy-eight untrained panelists. The sample obtained from Mojokerto (MOJ) was the most-liked alternatives MCEO in a similar degree of liking to the currently used PBR, while Belu (BEL) was the least-liked. Further analysis using Gas chromatography–Mass spectrometry/Olfactometry (GC-MS/O) was carried out on the MCEO from PBR, MOJ, as well as BEL. The response of nine panelists showed that the overall aroma perception of PBR was contributed by 1,8 cineole (eucalyptus-like, mint, fresh), α-pinene (pine, green, fresh), and ylangene (spicy, fresh, woody) as the main aroma-active compounds. In addition to α-pinene and 1,8 cineole, the unique aroma of MOJ was dominantly contributed by caryophyllene, possessing a woody, sweet, and spicy aroma. The strong floral odor of linalool and nerolidol, the aroma-active compounds of BEL, generated distinct sensory characteristics in comparison to the reference, PBR.

A comparative study of sensory quality of sie reuboh (an Acehnese cooked meat) based on its cooking ware

Sie reuboh is a traditional festive cuisine from Aceh Besar district – Aceh Province. Sie reuboh named by Acehnese for a 2:1 comparison of red-meat and separated beef tallow boiled with palm vinegar and blended spices. It reported having a long shelf life, exquisite of taste and flavor. Normally, Acehnese cooks this cuisine with traditional clay pot. As cooking utensil, clay pot is vulnerable to breakage and has slow heat propagation compared to stainless steel pot which has long usage and good heat conductor. This study aims to compare the quality of produced siereuboh based on its sensory quality (Hedonic and Qualitative Descriptive Analysis = QDA) and consumer acceptance by hedonic test. Sie reuboh was cooked in two types of cooking ware (earth clay pot and stainlesssteelpot) in four times repetitions. The obtained data is statistical analyzed with ANOVA and DMRT. The results showed that sie reuboh cooked with stainless steel pot is preferable in terms of color, aroma, flavor (P≤0,01) than one cooked with clay pot. Furthermore, the QDA showed that from ten examined attributes, brightness, sour and spicy aroma and umami flavor of sie reuboh cooked with stainless steel has higher notes (P≤0,01) than other treatment. As conclusion, it can be stated that stainless steel provides sie reuboh with better sensory properties and higher consumer liking. A post-publication change was made to this article on 11 Mar 2020 to correct the conference title in the PDF header.

Modulation of Wine Flavor using Hanseniaspora uvarum in Combination with Different Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Lactic Acid Bacteria Strains and Malolactic Fermentation Strategies

Hanseniaspora uvarum is one of the predominant non-Saccharomyces yeast species found on grapes and in juice, but its effect on lactic acid bacteria (LAB) growth and wine flavor has not been extensively studied. Therefore, the interaction between H. uvarum, two Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast strains, two LAB species (Lactobacillus plantarum and Oenococcus oeni) in combination with two malolactic fermentation (MLF) strategies was investigated in Shiraz wine production trials. The evolution of the different microorganisms was monitored, non-volatile and volatile compounds were measured, and the wines were subjected to sensory evaluation. Wines produced with H. uvarum in combination with S. cerevisiae completed MLF in a shorter period than wines produced with only S. cerevisiae. Sequential MLF wines scored higher for fresh vegetative and spicy aroma than wines where MLF was induced as a simultaneous inoculation. Wines produced with H. uvarum had more body than wines produced with only S. cerevisiae. The induction of MLF using L. plantarum also resulted in wines with higher scores for body. H. uvarum can be used to reduce the duration of MLF, enhance fresh vegetative aroma and improve the body of a wine.

Humulus lupulus L. cv. Cascade grown in Northern Italy: morphological and phytochemical characterization

Several aroma hops (Humulus lupulus L.) were recently introduced in Northern Italy as a small-scale production of excellence. In this preliminary study, the American cultivar Cascade was investigated in a combined morphological and phytochemical survey. Morphological investigation on trichome structure, density and distribution was performed by scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy. Essential oil composition, α/β-acid and polyphenol profiles over 3 years were determined by GC-MS and HPLC analyses. Two types of non-glandular (simple and cystolithic) and glandular (peltate and bulbous) trichomes were observed on leaves and female inflorescences. The peltate trichomes resulted as the main sites of terpene production and accumulation. The essential oil profiles showed myrcene, β-caryophyllene, (E)-β-farnesene and humulene epoxide II as the dominant compounds over the three collection times, although with different relative abundances. The presence of two exclusive compounds, γ-muurolene and trans-γ-cadinene, characterized the investigated cv. Cascade, potentially enhancing herbal, woody and spicy aroma traits of this cultivation in Northern Italy. The bitter acid composition showed quantitative values consistent with literature data only for the second and third monitoring year. Qualitative differences in polyphenol content were also recorded, for the presence of quercetin-3-O-malonylglucoside and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, which may characterize this peculiar Italian cultivation.

New Products Based on Spelt for Restaurant Sector

The spelt processed products that are presented on the Ukrainian food market have been analyzed in the paper. The comparative characteristics of chemical composition of spelt products – wholemeal flour, grits, flakes, bran – with same wheat and oat products have been investigated. Spelt flour and flakes are proposed for applying at the restaurant establishments. Authors havedeveloped technology of baked products for special dietician consumption – spelt crisp bread and spelt sweet bar as well. Spelt crisp bread contains linseed, sunflower seed, spices (cilantro, curcuma), herbs (fennel, parsley). Technology of this bread includes such operations as grinding of cleaned seeds, sifting of bran and flour, mixing of dry components, adding of kefir and water. Duration of first fermentation is 20 minutes, then rectangular shaping (5×13 cm) and drying at 80 oC during 4…5 hours, then cooling at ambient temperature near 30 min. Caloric value of spelt crisp bread is 260 kCal. Sensorial parameters of spelt crisp bread – rectangular shape, light brown colour, smooth top with inclusion of linseed and sunflower seed, pleasant taste and spicy aroma, crisp crust and thick texture. Sweet spelt bar is an example of beneficial sweets. It contains sunflower seed and pumpkin seed, nuts (walnut and almond), date, honey and sesame. Caloric value of spelt sweet bar is 220 kCal. Technology of this bread includes such operations as drying of spelt flakes at 120 oC during 2 min and further cooling, soaking of date in hot water during 3 min, removing of stone and grinding. Walnut is inspected due to the absence of walnut shell, almond is soaking for 3 hours, then parboiled and grinded. All ingredients are mixed during 5 min with honey. Then bar is rectangular shaping and served. Such bar has rectangular shape, ribbed top, crisp texture, light brown colour and intense walnut aroma.

Research Note: Effect of Light Quality on Fruit Growth, Composition and the Sensory Impact of the Wines

The stage at which grapes are harvested has an influence on the aromatic and phenolic composition of the berries and the resulting wines. The aim of this study was to evaluate wines harvested sequentially as outlined in the berry sugar accumulation model. Two vintages and treatments in which the light quality and quantity were altered at the fruit zone were compared. In 2010/2011, the grapes were harvested at two ripening stages after the sugar loading plateau was reached, namely the “fresh fruit” stage (20-25 days afterwards) and “pre-mature” stage (at approximately 35 days). In the 2011/2012 season, grapes were harvested 45 days after the sugar loading plateau was reached (the “mature fruit” stage). Vegetative aromas were synonymous with the “fresh fruit” stage in 2010/2011, while the 2011/2012 wines from the “mature fruit” harvest date were characterized by raisin, prune and spicy aromas. In both seasons, the control treatments were rated more intense in ‘satin in the mouth’ in and after expectoration. Wines in which the UV-B radiation was excluded during berry growth were rated the highest in the mouthfeel attribute ‘coarseness’ in both treatment seasons. Wines were analyzed chemically for phenolic content using HPLC, and sensorial using descriptive analysis with a trained panel. In the leaf removal treatments, higher acidity content enhanced the perception of astringency in the wine. Wines were analyzed chemically for phenolic content using HPLC and sensorial using descriptive analysis with a trained panel. Overall, the data showed that grape composition was altered by varying light quality, within a season, but seasonal variation overrode treatment effects. Flavonol concentration in 2011/2012 wine was higher in the exposed leaf removal treatment compared to the other treatments. High light intensities in 2011/2012 season increased anthocyanin concentration in the wine.. This study emphasizes the importance of the quality and quantity of light on the composition and quality of wines, and presents new findings regarding sensory attributes associated with harvesting at different ripening stages.

Preparation Process, Sensory Profile And Chemical Composition of Sargyangma.

The aim of present work was to describe the traditional process of preparation, sensory profile and chemical composition of Sargyangma. Sargyangma was prepared in lab and its descriptive sensory test and chemical analysis were performed. The colour of Sargyangma was slightly brown and unevenly distributed. Sargyangma had characteristic aroma and taste mainly due to cooked blood and Yangben. Yangben is local word used by Limbu ethnic community for edible lichen. This had moderately intense bloody aroma and taste. Very intense Yangben aroma and taste was readily detectable. In the overall, Sargyangma had moderately intense pleasant, porky-meaty, spicy aroma. Sargyangma was moderately compact and juicy. Sargyangma contained high amount of fat (29.2%) and moderate amount of protein (13.33%).

Effect of Temperature and Duration of Maceration on Colour and Sensory Properties of Red Wine: A Review

The maceration process plays an important role in the composition of the colour and sensory properties of red wine by facilitating the extraction of phenolic and aromatic compounds found in grapes. This review summarises the key findings from a study of the literature associated with research on the effects of the temperature and duration of maceration on the phenolic content, colour and sensory properties of red wine. In the past, many researchers have reported that higher maceration temperatures increase the extraction of phenolic compounds and enhance red wine colour, but low-temperature pre-fermentative techniques have become more popular in recent years due to their positive effects on wine composition, including lower oxidation of anthocyanin pigments and aroma compounds, inhibition of undesirable enzymatic activities, and an environment that is less conductive to microbial growth. Macerations carried out at low temperature ranges (10°C to 15°C) result in red wines with the highest levels of total phenolic content, anthocyanin and colour intensity, and richer fruity, flowery and spicy aroma. The duration of maceration has also been shown to have significant effects on red wine phenolic compounds, colour properties and the relevant sensory attributes. Studies show that prolonged maceration leads to a stable red colour, as well as richer tannin content, polymeric pigments and astringency. Red wines with appropriate colour and sensory characteristics can be produced by adapting both maceration temperature and duration to the desired style.