Sphaerobolus Stellatus Research Articles

First record of Sphaerobolus stellatus Tode (Basidiomycota, Geastraceae) from the Amazon, Brazil

Sphaerobolus stellatus Tode is a fascinating gasteroid fungus that is distinguished from other fungi by the diminutive morphology of the starry basidiome when mature and its peculiar strategy of spore’s dispersion. This taxon ejects the gleba for a considerable distance as if it was cannon, and therefore is popularly known as artillery fungus. Although the species is cosmopolitan, records are seldom in regions such as South America, and many of them require greater attention due to the absence of important morphological characters. In Brazil, the South American country with most records, the distribution was restricted to a few sites, none of them in the Amazon. This study describes the occurrence of S. stellatus from the Amazon, contributing to the understanding of its geographical distribution and making the material available for future diversity studies.

Ceratiomyxa arbuscula: A White Tubular Myxomycetes in West Java

A white tubular Myxomycota is identic to the Ceratiomyxa genus. Ceratiomyxa has five sporangium types such as a simple pillar, fruticulus, arbuscula, filliforme, and porioides. Slime mold as Ceratiomyxa was found in IPB University. The specimen was coded as Tub1. The specimen Tub1 was found on the rotten wood and together colonized the wood as a substrate with other fungi, such as Sphaerobolus stellatus and Lentinus sajor-caju. The morphological observation was conducted, such as sporangium type, sporangium color, spore size, spore shape, and spore position of the sporangium. To identify the species, phenetic analysis was conducted for five species of Ceratiomyxa and Stemonitis fusca as an outgroup. All characters were transferred into binner data. Then, the SAHN cladogram was built using Numerical Taxonomy System (NTSys) software. The SAHN cladogram showed that Ceratiomyxa specimen Tub1 was identified as Ceratiomyxa arbuscula with a 100% similarity coefficient. The morphology supported the identification, such as the shape of arbuscula sporangium and the spore size.

The First Mitochondrial Genome for Geastrales (Sphaerobolus stellatus) Reveals Intron Dynamics and Large-Scale Gene Rearrangements of Basidiomycota.

In this study, the mitogenome of artillery fungus, Sphaerobolus stellatus, was assembled and compared with other Basidiomycota mitogenomes. The Sphaerobolus stellatus mitogenome was composed of circular DNA molecules, with a total size of 152,722 bp. Accumulation of intergenic and intronic sequences contributed to the Sphaerobolus stellatus mitogenome becoming the fourth largest mitogenome among Basidiomycota. We detected large-scale gene rearrangements in Basidiomycota mitogenomes, and the Sphaerobolus stellatus mitogenome contains a unique gene order. The quantity and position classes of intron varied between 75 Basidiomycota species we tested, indicating frequent intron loss/gain events occurred in the evolution of Basidiomycota. A novel intron position classes (P1281) was detected in the Sphaerobolus stellatus mitogenome, without any homologous introns from other Basidiomycota species. A pair of fragments with a total length of 9.12 kb in both the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of Sphaerobolus stellatus was detected, indicating possible gene transferring events. Phylogenetic analysis based on the combined mitochondrial gene set obtained well-supported tree topologies (Bayesian posterior probabilities ≥ 0.99; bootstrap values ≥98). This study served as the first report on the mitogenome from the order Geastrales, which will promote the understanding of the phylogeny, population genetics, and evolution of the artillery fungus, Sphaerobolus stellatus.

Lignocellulose Degrading Capabilities of Sphaerobolus stellatus in Creeping Bentgrass

Thatch collapse, caused by Sphaerobolus stellatus (Tode) Persoon, is a new disease of finely managed turfgrasses. Symptoms include dark‐green, circular patches of turf atop degraded organic matter resulting in an indentation of the playing surface. Within a 6‐wk period, S. stellatus reduces organic matter and thatch depth by 21 and 25%, respectively, but the mechanism of thatch reduction has not been defined. To characterize the underlying biochemical processes of thatch collapse, lignin degradation was assessed, and the activities of associated lignocellulose enzymes within the organic matter of turfgrass thatch were quantified. One isolate of S. stellatus was inoculated on creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.) plugs for 6 wk. Using tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) thermochemolysis to analyze the fate of lignin from golf course thatch, we found a significant depolymerization of S. stellatus‐colonized lignin. To understand the broader mechanism responsible for organic matter degradation, we used crude enzyme extracts from one S. stellatus isolate from turf and mulch along with one isolate of a Panaeolina spp. at four time points in 3 mo. Extracts were assayed for Mn‐independent and Mn‐dependent peroxidase, laccase, xylanase, and cellulase activity. Elevated levels of laccase were found in the S. stellatus isolate from turf, and both S. stellatus isolates produced levels of Mn‐independent peroxidases. Both S. stellatus isolates and the Panaeolina spp. isolate exhibited xylanase activity. Cellulase was not verifiably detected. The presence of laccase in S. stellatus from turfgrass, Mn‐independent peroxidase in both S. stellatus isolates, and xylanase in all fungal extracts illustrates a mechanism of organic matter reduction in thatch collapse.

Insights into the Biology ofSphaerobolus stellatusas a Causal Agent of Thatch Collapse in Golf Turfs

ABSTRACTSymptoms consistent with thatch collapse have been observed on golf courses in New Zealand and the United States. Symptoms include circular patches ranging from 8 to 46 cm in diameter, which result in a depression in golf turf stands of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera), annual bluegrass (Poa annua), and browntop bentgrass (Agrostis capillaris). Commonly associated with the thatch degradation wasSphaerobolus stellatus, an agaricomycete not previously reported within turfgrass stands. The primary objectives of this study were to confirmS.stellatusas a causal agent of thatch collapse; to morphologically compare isolates; and to determine cardinal temperatures for isolate growth and glebae production. Isolates were obtained from symptomatic turf from five golf courses in the United States and two golf courses in New Zealand. Colonies were creamy white, and mycelia were either appressed, stringy, or aerial. Mycelia growth increased with increasing temperature from 5 to 25°C, and more glebae were produced at 10, 15, and 20°C than at 25°C. Amplification of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) with primer set ITS4/ITS5 resulted in 695 to 724 bp sequences from all isolates that had 98 to 99% similarity to known isolates ofS. stellatus. Thatch degrading ability ofS. stellatuswas determined using the loss on ignition method and by direct measurements of thatch depth. When compared with the noninfested control, plugs infested withS. stellatusexhibited a 20 and 25% decrease of organic matter and thatch depth, respectively. Koch's postulates were fulfilled, confirming thatS. stellatusis a causal agent for organic matter degradation resulting in thatch collapse on golf turfgrass.

Encapsulation and immobilization of a mycophagous nematode by two Sphaerobolus species

A defence mechanism against nematodes produced by Sphaerobolus stellatus Tode and Sphaerobolus iowensis L.B. Walker is described for the first time. Within 24 h of introduction, some individuals of a mycophagous nematode ( Aphelenchoides sp.) exhibited lethargic behaviour marked by the cessation of feeding and a reduction in movement. The anterior portion of the affected nematodes appeared swollen and was encapsulated with an amorphous material of unknown composition. The nematode stylet could not penetrate this encapsulating matrix, preventing further hyphal grazing and subsequently leading to death of the nematodes, possibly due to starvation. Immobilized nematodes were not consumed by the fungi. It is hypothesized that when the feeding nematodes pierce a specialized structure found in Sphaerobolus cultures, referred to as a gloeocystidium, the contents are released and solidify on the nematode heads. It is proposed that the gloeocystidia function to protect the hyphal system and act as a general antifeedant mechanism against mycophagous nematodes and possibly other fungus-feeding microfauna.

In Vitro Screening of Fungicides to Control Artillery Fungi

Abstract We evaluated the influence of 26 fungicides at four different concentrations (0.1, 1.0, 10.0, and 100.0 a.i.) on in vitro growth of an artillery fungus (Sphaerobolus stellatus isolate SS8) in Petri plate culture. The most effective fungicides, as determined by comparison of mean EC50 values, were polyoxin-D and azoxystrobin, followed by pyraclostrobin, triademifon, tebuconazole, propiconazole, thiophante-methyl, triticonazole, thiram, and fludioxonil. These in vitro laboratory findings need to be evaluated in the field before specific fungicides can be recommended to control artillery fungi in landscape mulch.

Development of a fungal pre‐treatment process for reduction of organic matter in contaminated soil

AbstractBACKGROUND: Combustion at high temperature is a common treatment method for heavily contaminated soils. The capacity of the combustion process is negatively correlated with organic matter content of the soil. Thus, by reducing the amount of soil organic matter, batch size could be increased and the combustion process improved. In this study, the possibility to pre‐treat soil containing high levels of organic matter with white‐rot and litter‐decomposing fungi was examined and scaled up.RESULTS: Calculations based on the CO2 production in laboratory experiments indicated that 20% of the soil organic carbon would have been degraded in 6 months when treated with Sphaerobolus stellatus and 10% when treated with Stropharia rugosoannulata. In a pilot‐scale experiment with S. rugosoannulata mass loss due to degradation of soil organic matter accounted for 10% of the total weight of the soil in 6 months.CONCLUSION: A fungal pre‐treatment process for contaminated soils with high organic matter content was developed. Good results were obtained with S. stellatus and S. rugosoannulata and the process was successfully scaled up to 300 kg scale. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry

Phylogenetic analyses reveal deeply divergent species lineages in the genus Sphaerobolus (Phallales: Basidiomycota)

Phylogenetic analyses of 27 artillery fungus ( Sphaerobolus sp.) isolates were conducted to identify species boundaries in the genus Sphaerobolus. Multiple gene genealogies inferred from maximum likelihood, Bayesian, and maximum-parsimony analyses of sequence data from individual loci (mtSSU, ITS, EF 1-α, and LSU) and a combined dataset (mtSSU, ITS, and EF 1-α) concordantly indicate the existence of three deeply divergent lineages in the genus Sphaerobolus, each representing a phylogenetic species. These three phylogenetic species correspond to two known species: Sphaerobolus iowensis and Sphaerobolus stellatus, and a newly discovered species. Suprageneric phylogenetic analyses of the mtSSU and LSU datasets containing representatives of related genera of the gomphoid–phalloid clade of Homobasidiomycetes suggested that the undescribed taxon likely is more closely related to S. stellatus than to S. iowensis.

Attack of the artillery fungus on vinyl siding

The artillery fungus, Sphaerobolus stellatus, ejects dark-colored spores for a distance of several meters. These are enclosed in an adhesive layer comprised of carotenoid pigments. On exposure to sunlight, the pigment layer resinifies and develops a strong bond to vinyl siding capstock. The damage is compounded when the homeowner removes the bonded spores abrasively, destroying the protective capstock layer. Strategies to protect vinyl siding or to defeat the microorganism are discussed. J. VINYL. ADDIT. TECHNOL., 11:63–64, 2005. © 2005 Society of Plastics Engineers

Influence of Mulch Characteristics on Sporulation by the Artillery Fungus Sphaerobolus stellatus

Abstract The artillery fungus (Sphaerobolus stellatus) is a common, white-rotting wood decay fungus that grows on landscape mulch. During colonization, the fungus produces dark-brown, sticky spore masses (gleba) that it shoots from the mulch towards a source of light or light-colored objects. The gleba adhere tightly to surfaces such as the sides of houses or cars. Twenty-five landscape mulches were evaluated in the field and laboratory to determine which mulches supported or inhibited the artillery fungus. Although the artillery fungus eventually grew on most types of mulch, some mulches supported more sporulation than others. The artillery fungus did not grow or sporulate well on mulches made from large pine bark nuggets, Atlantic white-cedar, or cypress. We recommend these mulches for use in areas having an existing or potential artillery fungus problem. However, even these mulches should be replaced with new mulch on a regular basis.

Biological Control of the Artillery Fungus, Sphaerobolus stellatus, with Trichoderma harzianum and Bacillus subtilis

Abstract Three strains of the fungus Trichoderma harzianum Rifai and two strains of the bacterium Bacillus subtilis (Ehrenberg) Cohn were evaluated for their ability to suppress colonization and sporulation of the artillery fungus (Sphaerobolus stellatus Tode:Pers.) on oatmeal agar. All five biological control agents inhibited growth of S. stellatus, but efficacy depended on time of application. Simultaneous inoculation of agar with S. stellatus and the biocontrol agents, as well as inoculation of biocontrol agents 14 days prior to S. stellatus, resulted in complete inhibition of S. stellatus. Inoculation of agar with biocontrol agents 14 days after inoculation with S. stellatus reduced, but did not completely suppress S. stellatus colonization and sporulation. In this experiment, gleba (spore masses) treated with all strains of T. harzianum and strain GBO3 of B. subtilis did not germinate, but 13% of gleba treated with strain MBI 600 of B. subtilis did germinate. Trichoderma harzianum was more effective than B. subtilis as a biocontrol agent.

Predicting Straw Decomposition by a Four-Species Fungal Community: A Cellular Automaton Model

We have developed a cellular automaton model based on the measured and inferred properties of the fungal saprophytes, Mucor hiemalis, Agrocybe gibberosa, Chaetomium globosum and Sphaerobolus stellatus. In this model, the fungal mycelia are represented by the players MH, AG, CG and SS, respectively. The model was used to investigate the rate of breakdown of litter, assumed to be made up of sugar and cellulose, and the associated persistence of the four model mycelia. We examined the persistence times of the fungi and the degree of breakdown of the resources. This model reproduces most of the results of competition experiments on malt extract agar medium between different fungi. However, perfect reproduction of observations was not possible since real fungi showed a variety of responses under similar conditions. The model predicts a number of phenomena seen in other experimental situations. The model expects coexistence between species to continue for longer when spatial effects are important. Persistence of each species is found to be greatest for some intermediate level of resource patchiness. The model also exhibits the phenomenon of secondary colonization, obligate sugar users can re-colonize through the release of sugars from the breakdown of cellulose by other fungi. The model predicts that, when the resources are patchy, decomposition will take much longer to complete. If the resources are sufficiently patchy, all species die before breakdown of resources is complete.

Resource capture by interacting fungal colonizers of straw

Nine species of microfungi and eight basidiomycetes were assessed singly and in pairwise or three-way combination for their potential capacity for primary resource capture of agar media, sterile straw and sterile soil. When single species were ranked by extension rate, results on straw and soil agreed broadly with those from agar media, although the rates were much slower in straw. In pairwise and 3-way interactions on sterile soil, colonization proceeded as predicted from the mycelial extension rates of single species on agar, sterile soil and sterile straw, although extension of some species was significantly slower in combination than singly. There was some agreement between the outcome of pairwise interactions observed on 2% malt extract agar medium and sterile soil of four test species, and on straws in non-sterile soil of Agrocybe gibberosa . The four species could be ranked in combative order: A. gibberosa = Sphaerobolus stellatus ≫ Mucor hiemalis and Chaetomium globosum . Cord formation by basidiomycetes was more pronounced in soil than on agar media, and when in close proximity to other species.

Carbohydrate changes in the developing sporophore of Sphaerobolus stellatus

Fruit-body development in Sphaerobolus stellatus is accompanied by increasing hydration of tissues concomitant with a rise in the amounts of soluble carbohydrates present, including glucose, mannitol and trehalose.

A Cytological Examination of Sphaerobolus Stellatus Fruiting Bodies

Fruiting bodies of Sphaerobolus stellatus collected in the field and grown in Petri dish culture were examined by light and electron microscopy at near maturity and at maturity (both pre-glebal discharge and post-discharge). Basidiospores, gemmae, and which comprise the ejected glebal mass were studied. The parenchyma cell layer and its underlying hyphal mat which are collectively involved in glebal ejection are nearly indistinguishable before and after ejection except for the marked diminution of a-glycogen rosettes in the parenchyma cell layer after discharge. The fat cells of the collenchyma layer making up the glebal surface broke down near fruiting body maturity and became amorphous masses of cellular debris with interspersed fragments of cellular membranes, most noticeably sets of parenthesomes. Following ejection of the glebal mass, previously germinated gemmae continued to grow and additional gemmae germinated. These constitute the germinal cell population in cultured material. Basidiospores did not germinate under normal laboratory conditions. The stickiness of the discharged glebal masses was clearly due to material from degraded collenchyma cells.

A Cytological Examination of Sphaerobolus stellatus Fruiting Bodies

Fruiting bodies of Sphaerobolus stellatus collected in the field and grown in Petri dish culture were examined by light and electron microscopy at near maturity and at maturity (both pre-glebal discharge and post-discharge). Basidiospores, gemmae, and “fat cells” which comprise the ejected glebal mass were studied. The parenchyma cell layer and its underlying hyphal mat which are collectively involved in glebal ejection are nearly indistinguishable before and after ejection except for the marked diminution of a-glycogen rosettes in the parenchyma cell layer after discharge. The fat cells of the collenchyma layer making up the glebal surface broke down near fruiting body maturity and became amorphous masses of cellular debris with interspersed fragments of cellular membranes, most noticeably sets of parenthesomes. Following ejection of the glebal mass, previously germinated gemmae continued to grow and additional gemmae germinated. These constitute the germinal cell population in cultured material. Basidiospores did not germinate under normal laboratory conditions. The stickiness of the discharged glebal masses was clearly due to material from degraded collenchyma cells.

Untersuchungen zum temperaturbedingten Wachstum einiger Pilze unterschiedlicher systematischer Stellung bei verschiedenen Stickstoffquellen und -konzentrationen)

Summary Phycomyces blakesleeanus, Botrytis spec., Agaricus bisporus, var. albidus, Clilocybe clavipes, Lentinus tigrinus, Polyporus melanopus and Sphaerobolus stellatus differ considerably in their growth rate as well as in the position of the cardinal points of temperature of their growth. The growth rate is ascertained by the “Planimetric Method”. Chemical defined and half-synthetic solid culture media are used as culture substratum. Adding several nitrogen sources of different concentrations, an influence on the effect of growth at a temperature-optimum, -maximum and -minimum can be observed. Hereby conclusions of the behaviour of resistance can be drawn off. Compared to the inhibitory effect resp. furthering effect of the nitrogen admixture, the experiment fungi can be divided into two groups: for fungi of the 1st group, the inhibitory effect of the nitrogen components is the slightest on full synthetic as well as half-synthetic culture media at an optimum temperature; at a minimum temperature it is nearly equal. Regarding the fungi of the 2nd group, the injuring effect is getting eventually less from minimum over optimum to maximum, so that here, even a furtherance of the growth rate can be observed. Taking into account every difference in detail, the inhibitory effect resulting from the admixtures nitrogen components and with it, the reduced resistance against extreme temperatures, are by far greater than the furthering effect. Nevertheless, in individual case, a positive effect can result from the applied nitrogen source.

The Nidulariaceae or bird's nest fungi of the Hawaiian Islands

Eleven species of the Nidulariaceae are known to occur in the Hawaiian Islands and are described and illustrated. These are Sphaerobolus stellatus, Cyathus berkeleyanus, C. bulleri, C. poeppigii, C. limbatus, C. microsporus, C. pallidus, C. crassimurus, C. triplex, C. earlei, C. stercoreus. All are widely distributed elsewhere in the tropics except C. crassimurus, a recently described species from Hawaii.

Fruiting in Sphaerobolus: an effect of yellow light reversed by blue.

FRUITING in the gasteromycete fungus Sphaerobolus stellatus is dependent on light. When cultures on oatmeal agar, first incubated in darkness at 20° C for two weeks, are illuminated with “daylight” fluorescent light (100–1,000 lux), abundant sporophores are formed 12–14 days later. During the first week of this period, it is only the blue end of the spectrum (400–480 mµ) which is effective, but during the next few days, light of longer wavelength 550–700 mµ) becomes much more effective than the shorter rays. This switch in the quality of the light involvement (which has already been reported1) seems to represent a unique situation in fungi. It should be noted that the final 24 h of sporophore development, including stellate opening of the sporophore and culminating in glebal-mass discharge, have no requirement for light.