Spelt Grain Research Articles

Quality Parameters and Rheological Dough Properties of 15 Spelt (Triticum spelta L.) Varieties Cultivated Today

Spelt grain has high nutritional value, but the rheological properties of dough made from spelt flour remain insufficiently investigated. Most studies have focused on comparing various breeding lines and accessions of spelt with selected conventional varieties. The aim of this study was to analyze the rheological properties of dough made from the flour of 14 winter and one spring spelt varieties cultivated today compared with two reference varieties of common wheat. The analyses were performed by the Mixolab test. In comparison with common wheat, spelt varieties were characterized by significantly lower values of the gluten index (16–42 versus 87%), Zeleny index (23–28 versus 46 cm3), and kernel vitreousness (5–35 versus 51%). Doughs produced from spelt and common wheat flour differed significantly it their rheological properties. Mixolab profiles demonstrated significant variations in the values of the retrogradation index (2–8), amylase index (1–8), water absorption index (0–6), and gluten+ index (1–7) across the tested spelt varieties. Principal component analysis revealed that all six Mixolab indicators strongly discriminated wheat and spelt varieties. The results clearly indicate that some modern varieties of spelt have high breadmaking potential. They are also characterized by relatively high variation in the analyzed technological properties of grain and flour.

The potential role of selected bioactive compounds from spelt and common wheat in glycemic control.

Diet is an important lifestyle factor which influences people's health and the prevention of chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes. Cereal-based foods constitute the main component of the everyday diet worldwide. Old cereal species like spelt (Triticum spelta L.) are becoming more and more popular, especially in Europe. This review focuses on the role of bioactive compounds from spelt and their possible biological mechanisms of action in glycemic control. Spelt grain contains a high amount of dietary fiber, which can modulate postprandial glycemia. Other phytochemicals, such as phytic acid and alkylresorcinols, also contribute to controlling blood glucose levels, insulin sensitivity and hiperinsulinemia. Antioxidant compounds present in spelt grain may act as protection from negative outcomes of chronic hyperglycemia. In this paper the composition and beneficial properties of spelt are also compared with those of widely consumed cereals like common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The health benefits of whole grain as opposed to refined products are also discussed.

The effect of environmental conditions on the content of selected micronutrients in spelt grain

Abstract The aim of the study was to determine the effect of application of small amounts of nitrogen to the soil together with foliar application of micronutrients on the content of copper, manganese and zinc in the grain of spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta L.). The study was based on a two-factor field experiment conducted in 2009–2011 on very good rye complex soil. Nitrogen was applied in the form of ammonium nitrate (34% N), and manganese and copper were applied to the leaves in the form of the fertilisers Adob Mn (1.5 l∙ha−1) and Adob Cu (1.0 l∙ha−1), respectively. The results indicated that the nitrogen fertilisation, the foliar application of micronutrients and the interaction of these factors significantly determined the contents of copper, manganese and zinc in the grain. The highest content of Cu and Mn in the material was obtained following the application of 50 kg N·ha−1, and an increase in nitrogen application (to 50 kg·ha−1) caused a decrease in the content of zinc in the grain. Foliar application of Cu, Mn and both elements together resulted in significant changes in the concentrations of Cu, Mn and Zn in the plant material as compared to treatment without the application of micronutrients. The mineral fertilisers at the rates applied had a beneficial effect on the chemical composition of the grain, and thus on its quality, and this was achieved with substantially lower consumption of agrochemicals than that in the case of agrotechnical procedures for traditional cereals. It can, therefore, be concluded that this practice is environment friendly and can significantly reduce the negative impact of agricultural activity.

Culinary properties of groats of spelt wheat cultivars and lines

Goal. To study culinary properties of spelt wheat grain groats depending on cultivar or line.Methods. Technological and culinary properties for five spelt wheat cultivars and eight lines derived from crossing bread wheat with spelt wheat were determined comparing with the cultivar Zoria Ukrainy as standard. The prepared whole groats were flattened on laboratory roller workbench. Culinary evaluation of porridge from flattened groats was carried out on a scale of 1 to 9 according to the methods of State scientific and technical examination of plant varieties being modified at the Department of Technology of Grain Storage and Processing of Uman National University of Horticulture. Grain vitreousness and protein content were also measured.Results. It is established that technological properties of grain of spelt wheat cultivars and lines varied significantly as influenced by weather conditions. The protein content in spelt grain varied between 11.0 and 21.3%, and the vitreousness ranged from 35 to 84%, depending on the cultivar or the line. The cultivars Zoria Ukrainy, Schwabenkorn, Australian 1, NSS 6/01 and the line LPP 3218 had the highest values of these indices, while the cultivar Swedish 1 and the line LPP 3117 had the lowest ones.The culinary ratings (marks) of flattened groats of the spelt grain varied significantly depending on the cultivar or the line too. The total culinary rating of porridge from flattened groats ranged between 7.4 and 9.0 points. The porridge from flattened groats of the cultivar Zoria Ukrainy and the line LPP 3132 have got the highest culinary rating (9.0 points), while the ratings of the cultivar Swedish 1 (7.4 points) and the lines LPP 1424 and LPP 3117 (7.8 points) were the lowest. The culinary ratings of porridge for the other cultivars were 8.2–8.4 points.Conclusions. Resulted from crossing bread wheat with spelt, it is possible to obtain lines with high organoleptic rating of porridge. The total culinary rating of porridge from flattened groats of spelt was of 7.4 to 9.0 points. The cultivar Zoria Ukrainy and the line LPP 3132 were assessed with the maximum total culinary rating of porridge from flattened groats, which makes them suitable for making cereal products.The indices of vitreousness and protein content in grain as well can be used to assess the culinary properties of the spelt groats.

Organic food sourcing, processing and distribution: a case of satisfying a growing market

A case study of an organic food company in the Slovak Republic involved in producing and sourcing inputs, food processing and distribution is presented. The case is based on a June 2014 “live” case study prepared for students in International MBA in Agribusiness programs at the Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Warsaw University of Life Sciences and the National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kiev. The company was established in 2001 with the objective to bring organic food to health conscious consumers. The company grows organic spelt grain, wheat, rye, buckwheat, herbs and apples on its 156 ha and 400 ha of owned and rented farmland. The company further processes these crops into more than 40 finished products. Students are presented with company information and summaries of a company visit and discussions with management. Students perform PEST and SWOT analyses, identify a shortage of owned and leased land as a problem the company must address, conduct research and analysis, and recommend product specification contracts as a solution to the problem.

Mycobiota on common wheat ( Triticum aestivum) and spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) grains from the region of Vojvodina in 2015

The incidence of mycobiota on common wheat (Triticum aestivum) and spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) samples, collected during the harvest in 2015, was investigated. The obtained results showed that more genera of mycobiota were isolated from the common wheat grains than from the spelt grains. The most frequently isolated species from common wheat grains belonged to genus Alternaria (41.7%), followed by Fusarium (15.2%), while the incidence of this mycobiota on the spelt grains were 32.4% and 10.4%, respectively. Aspergillus flavus was identified in 40.0% wheat samples, with the incidence of 2.0%. Additionally, this study was undertaken in respect of the occurrence and toxigenic potential of A. flavus isolates from these small grain cereals. A simple screening method was applied to determine toxigenic profiles (aflatoxins production) of A. flavus isolates from common wheat. The results revealed the importance of precise investigation of mycobiota distribution on common wheat and spelt grains, and especially the investigation of toxigenic potential of A. flavus.

Effects of genotype and weed control on the nutrient composition of winter spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta L.) and common wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. vulgare)

The renaissance of spelt is associated with the development of alternative farming and a trend to maintain biodiversity. The present study carried out a comparison between two methods of weeding (mechanical and chemical) as well as a cereal cultivar influence on chemical composition of spelt and wheat. The research material was taken from field experiments carried out during three years. In order to assess the chemical composition, the following cereal cultivars were used: lines of winter spelt – STH 8 and STH 11 and a winter common wheat cv. Tonacja. In all cases, the overall protein content in spelt was significantly higher than in common wheat. Spelt grain is also richer in fats than common wheat. A visible tendency to higher concentration of raw fibre was observed when mechanical weeding was applied. Also, mechanical weeding as well as the variety significantly influenced β-glucan content. The study of the impact of a weeding method and a variety does not clearly show the direction of the amino acid content changes. The research indicates that there are ample opportunities to shape the level of nutrients, which decide about spelt grain application in the food industry through agronomic factors (methods of weeding and cultivar).

Discrimination Between the Grain of Spelt and Common Wheat Hybrids and their Parental Forms Using Fourier Transform Infrared–Attenuated Total Reflection

The grain of five spring spelt lines, three common wheat cultivars, and their hybrids were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared–attenuated total reflection spectroscopy. Variations in the log(absorbance) values in the range of 900–1200 cm−1 (carbohydrates), 1520–1550 cm−1 (amides II), 1637–1655 cm−1 (amides I), and 2850–2955 cm−1 (lipids) indicated that hybrids were more similar to common wheat than to spelt. Significant differences between common wheat and spelt were reported in the above wavenumber range. No such differences were noted between common wheat × spelt and spelt × common wheat hybrid groups. A classical discriminant analysis indicated that hybrids were more similar to common wheat than to spelt. Fourier transform infrared–attenuated total reflection emerges as a highly suitable tool for the identification of spelt grains intended for human consumption or further processing.

Occurrence of mycotoxins in spelt and common wheat grain and their products

Organic farming does not allow the use of conventional mineral fertilizers and crop protection products. As a result, in our experiments we chose to grow different species of cereals and to see how cereal species affect mycotoxin accumulation. This study describes the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and T-2/HT-2 toxin in a survey of spelt and common wheat and their bran as well as flour. The analysis was conducted using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. The concentrations of DON, ZEA and T-2/HT-2 in Triticum spelta and T. aestivum were influenced by species, cereal type and year interaction. The highest concentrations of these mycotoxins were found in spelt grain with glumes, in spelt glumes and in spring wheat. These results show significantly higher concentrations of Fusarium toxins in glumes than in dehulled grain, which indicates the possible protective effect of spelt wheat glumes. The lowest DON, ZEA and T-2/HT-2 concentrations were determined in spelt grain without glumes. The research shows that it is potentially risky to produce bran from grain in which mycotoxin concentrations are below limits by European Union Regulation No. 1881/2006, since the concentration of mycotoxins in bran can be several times higher than that in grain. As a result, although bran is a dietary product characterised by good digestive properties, it can become a harmful product that can cause unpredictable health damage.

Grain-filling patterns and nitrogen utilization efficiency of spelt (Triticum spelta) under Mediterranean conditions

SUMMARYThe identification of factors determining the adaptation and nitrogen (N) utilization of spelt wheat is important for the successful introduction of the crop to a new environment. The present study was carried out to investigate the relative importance of grain-filling rate and duration of grain growth and to analyse the nitrogen utilization efficiency (NUtE) and biomass production efficiency of spelt under Mediterranean conditions. The performance of spelt was evaluated in relation to a well-adapted bread wheat cultivar. Three spelt cultivars (Ressac, Poème and Cosmos) and one bread wheat cultivar (Centauro) were grown for two growing seasons on a silty clay soil under two N levels (0 and 100 kg N/ha). Grain-filling parameters were estimated using the cubic polynomial model. This model provided good fit to the grain-filling data of spelt cultivars, with high coefficients of determination (R2) that ranged from 0·868 to 0·999. Cultivar differences were found for all grain-filling parameters studied, and these differences accounted for most of the variation observed within each particular grain-filling component in both years. Grain filling of spelt plants took place under adverse environmental conditions, mainly high temperatures, which led to a shortening of the grain-filling period. This fact was not fully compensated by the increase in the grain-filling rate, and eventually resulted in a reduction of the final spelt grain weight. Selection for early-flowering cultivars could be a successful strategy to moderate the influence of the environment on grain filling and improve the adaptation of spelt under Mediterranean conditions. The mean grain-filling rate was positively correlated with dry matter translocation, suggesting the crucial role of reserve assimilates in the vegetative tissues for the grain growth of spelt. The efficiency of N utilization to produce biomass was greater during the grain-filling period than the vegetative period. Averaged across N application rates, NUtE in spelt ranged from 20·1 to 29·5 g grain/g plant N. Cultivar differences in NUtE were observed in both years. Grain yield per unit grain N (grain DM/grain total N at maturity) contributed more to the total variation in NUtE among spelt cultivars compared with N harvest index (NHI). Spelt showed lower NUtE values, probably due to its higher grain N concentration and lower NHI compared with wheat. Low straw N concentration at maturity may be an indicator of improved NUtE in spelt, as evidenced by the negative relationship detected between the two variables. These results provide a better understanding of factors related with the adaptation and N utilization of spelt under Mediterranean conditions.

Textúra striedky špaldového chleba

The bread quality is considerably dependent on the texture characteristic of bread crumb. Crumb texture is an important quality indicator, as consumer prefer different bread taste. Texture analysis is primarily concerned with the evaluation of mechanical characteristics where a material is subjected to a controlled force from which a deformation curve of its response is generated. It is an objective physical examination of baked products and gives direct information on the product quality, oppositely to dough rheology tests what inform on the baking suitability of the flour, as raw material. This is why the texture analysis is one of the most helpful analytical methods of the product development. In the framework of our research during the years 2008 – 2009 were analyzed selected indicators for bread texture quality of five Triticum spelta L. varieties – Altgold, Oberkulmer Rotkorn, Ostro, Rubiota and Franckenkorn grown in an ecological system. The bread texture quality was evaluated on texture analyzer TA.XT Plus (Stable Micro Systems, Surrey, UK), following the AACC (74-09) standard method and expressed as crumb firmness (N), stiffness (N.mm-1) and relative elasticity (%). Our research proved that all selected indicators were significantly influenced by the year of growing and variety. The most soft bread was achieved in Rubiota, whereas bread crumb samples from Franckenkorn and Altgold were the most firm and stiff. Correlation analysis showed strong negative correlation between relative elasticity and bread crumb firmness as well as bread stiffness (-0.81++, -0.78++). The spelt grain can be a good source for making bread flour, but is closely dependent on choice of spelt variety. The spelt wheat bread crumb texture need further investigation as it can be a reliable quality parameter.

Spelt as an ingredient in concentrates for rearing calves

A palatable concentrate may stimulate intake and ease weaning stress. This study investigated the effect of the incorporation of spelt in the concentrate on calf performance (Experiment 1) and the palatability (Experiment 2).Sixty-six newborn Belgian Blue double-muscled female calves were involved in Experiment 1 to investigate the effect of incorporating 30% spelt grain in the concentrate (S+) as a replacement for 15% barley and 15% wheat (S−) during a 143-day rearing period. Calves received reconstituted milk at 10% of their birth weight. They were weaned when concentrate intake achieved 0.75kg/day. Grass hay was fed ad lib. After the rearing period all calves were adapted during 2 weeks to the same diet, fed to appetite, and consisting of maize silage and concentrate without spelt. Performances were investigated during 4 weeks. Spelt reduced the in vitro organic matter digestibility and the net energy content of the concentrate from 91.5% and 7.4MJ/kg to 88.1% and 7.0MJ/kg, respectively. It stimulated concentrate intake initially, so that calves were weaned after 58 days compared to 67 days for calves fed S− concentrate (P=0.012). A higher amount of dry matter (P=0.056) was required per kg live-weight gain for S+ concentrate, but energy efficiency was similar for both treatments (P=0.415). Daily live-weight gain for the entire rearing period was not affected (P=0.970) and averaged 0.77kg. Daily live-weight gain and feed intake were lower for the S+ treatment during the transition period (P<0.001), but neither age at 1st calving nor post-partum live-weight was affected.Five Holstein-Friesian females and five Belgian Blue double-muscled females, aging 203±8 (mean±standard error) days initially, and unaccustomed to eating S− and S+ concentrates, were involved in a preference test (Experiment 2). Both concentrates were administered free choice. Grass hay was fed ad lib. Concentrate intake was registered during 4 consecutive days at 0.5, 1, 3, 5, 8 and 24h after the morning feeding. Concentrate containing spelt was preferred by Holstein-Friesian calves but not by Belgian Blue calves, resulting in a concentrate×breed interaction. This interaction emphasised the complex role of sensory and metabolic signals in the control of feed intake.It was concluded that spelt can stimulate concentrate intake, so that rearing calves can be weaned earlier. However, the preference of concentrate containing spelt exerted no major effect on animal performance during the entire rearing period.

Effect of chemical crop protection on the content of some elements in grain of spelt wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. Spelta)

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of chemical crop protection on the content of N, P, K, Mg, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe in grain of 8 spelt wheat cultivars (Franckenkorn, Badengold, Schwabenspelz, Oberkulmer Rotkorn, Ostro, Ceralio, Schwabenkorn, and Spelt I.N.Z.). Chemical protection involved application of a fungicide, two herbicides and a retardant. No plant protection agents were used in the control treatment. The above spelt cultivars were grown in a monoculture on medium heavy mixed rendzina soil. The study was carried out in 2009-2011, at the Bezek Experimental Farm, which belongs to the University of Life Sciences in Lublin. Among the spelt wheat cultivars compared, grain of cv. Ostro was characterized by the highest content of nitrogen, phosphorus and manganese, whereas grain of cv. Franckenkorn contained the largest amounts of potassium and magnesium. The highest amount of zinc was found in grain of cv. Oberkulmer Rotkorn and that of copper – in grain of cv. Spelt I.N.Z., while grain of cv. Schwabenkorn was found to be the richest in iron. Irrespective of the cultivar, chemical plant protection significantly increased the copper content in spelt grain and simultaneously decreased the magnesium content. The content of N, Mg, Zn, Cu, and Mn in grain decreased in the successive years of the study.

A Possible Hypoallergenic Cereal in Wheat Food Allergy and Baker’s Asthma

Background: Wheat is a potent allergen source and is one of the causes of baker’s asthma and food allergy. The best strategy for managing food hypersensitivity involves strict avoidance of the trigger. However, wheat is quite difficult to avoid. Several alternative strategies for the treatment of food allergy are under study. Spelt is a possible hypoallergenic crop that may be tried in patients with wheat allergy. Methods: We have evaluated the allergenic IgE hypersensitivity mediated by spelt in wheat allergic patients. Overall, 66 patients who suffered from baker’s asthma or food allergy (45 males and 21 females, mean age 28.6 ± 12.9 years) were included. We have also compared its reactivity with standard- ized extracts from wheat and with purified non-specific lipid transfer proteins from wheat (Tri a 14) and from peach (Pru p 3). Immunodetection with spelt and common bread wheat extracts (Triticum aestivum, cultivar Astral) was per- formed. Fresh wheat and spelt grain extracts were used both for oral and bronchial challenge and skin tests. Specific IgE detection to different cereals was performed using the Immuno CAP System (Phadia, Uppsala, Sweden). The bronchial challenge was positive with wheat Astral in 44 (67%) patients, all of them suffered from asthma. Thirteen (29.54%) of these 44 patients had negative the challenge with spelt. The oral challenge with wheat Astral was positive in 22 (33%) patients with wheat food allergy, and the same test was positive in only in 6 of them with spelt (27.3%). The diagnostic yield (sensitivity, specificity and predictive values) of routine tests in determining spelt allergy by specific positive challenge responses was determined. Prick tests for spelt versus positive challenge tests had a good sensitivity (94%, 86.5 - 99.4; 95%CI) and specificity (86%, 84 - 90; 95% CI) for the diagnosis of spelt allergy. Immunodetection detected minor differences among different extracts. Conclusion: In summary, the prick test and bronchial and oral challenges both efficiently detected sensitization to spelt and their levels were related to more severe clinical profiles, but the wheal area was significantly lower with spelt (p 0.001) and the percentage of positive challenge tests decreased. Our results suggest that spelt is an old crop that may be tried in patients with wheat allergy.

Business opportunity assessment in Slovene organic spelt processing: application of real options model

AbstractDecision making in organic farming is related to risk and uncertainty, and options must be evaluated in the decision-making process. This paper presents the methodology of an integrated deterministic simulation system (KARSIM 1.0) application for decision-making support on organic farms in northeastern Slovenia. An emphasis to modify the net present value (NPVt) criterion by incorporating the real options approach was made. Its application is shown in organic spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta McKey) production and processing using two real options approaches, the Black–Scholes and binomial models. The NPVt indicates that the decision to process spelt for animal fodder is financially unfeasible, while the real options approach differentiates the results by organic spelt grain and flour production for human nutrition. It may be concluded that the real options approach can be useful when assessing projects with uncertainty, sunk costs and irreversibility, and it can provide for examining agricultural investment decisions.

A Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis Framework Tool for the Selection of Farm Business Models on Organic Mountain Farms

Mountain regions are important producers of organic food. For them, reliable decision making regarding business planning necessitates different critical support methods. KARSIM 1.0 (DSM) is a methodology based on an integrated deterministic simulation system application for decision-making support, consisting of 74 deterministic production simulation models. DSM enables different types of cost and financial feasibility calculations for organic production and food processing. KARSIM 1.0 was used to simulate three specific business alternatives for mountain organic farms. (Alternative 1: spelt grain, fruit cider, wine and brandy, plum brandy, calves meat and sheep–soft cheese production, Alternative 2: spelt flour, pear and apple juice, plum brandy, veal and sheep's milk, Alternative 3: spelt grain, dried fruit, calves, soft and hard sheep cheese). Simulation model results were compared using two multi-objective analysis methods: the analytical hierarchical process (Expert Choice Decision Support System software) and DEX-i method. The results showed the highest multi-objective decision evaluation for alternative 2 (Expert Choice = 0.361 and DEX-i evaluation = excellent). We can conclude that the combination of a deterministic cost simulation model and multi-criteria decision analysis presents an acceptable decision support tool for mountain organic farms; however, further research is desirable.

Concentrations of Some Metabolites Produced by Fungi of the Genus Fusarium and Selected Elements in Spring Spelt Grain

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study was to determine the content of selected elements and metabolites produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium in spelt (Triticum spelta L.) grain and husks and common wheat (T. aestivum L.) grain. Concentrations of trichothecenes, a volatile metabolite trichodiene (TRICH), as well as ergosterol (ERG) and adenosine 5′‐triphosphate (ATP) (a total microbial biomass indicator), were assessed. Toxin concentrations in spelt grain and husks harvested in 2003 and 2004 were comparable. Average deoxynivalenol concentrations reached 450 and 523 μg/kg in grain and 2,162 and 855 μg/kg in husks, respectively. Spelt grain, in comparison with common wheat grain, contained significantly higher concentrations of P, S, Mg, Zn, and Cu and a lower concentration of Al, whereas the concentrations of Ca, Fe, and Pb were significantly higher in the husks than in the grain of this cereal. A comparison of concentrations of Fusarium spp. metabolites in the grain of spelt and common wheat showed that the total concentration of mycotoxins and TRICH was slightly lower in T. spelta, whereas common wheat grain contained lower concentrations of ERG and ATP. The obtained results indicate that spelt husks contain considerable concentrations of trichothecenes.

Rapid High‐Performance Liquid Chromatography Determination of Tocopherols and Tocotrienols in Cereals

ABSTRACTA rapid normal‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography (NP‐HPLC) method has been developed for rapid determination of the total content of tocopherols (T) and tocotrienols (T3) in cereals. The new method uses a one‐step extraction followed by NP‐HPLC coupled with a fluorescence detector. The new method provides a baseline separation of the critical peaks of beta‐tocotrienol (β‐T3) and gamma‐tocopherol (γ‐T) within a short time of analysis. The extraction step requires no saponification step or addition of antioxidant. Addition of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) had no effect on the stability of vitamin E during sampling. The recovery was 96–100%. The method is demonstrated by successful quantification of vitamin E in barley, wheat, and spelt grains, as well as wheat germ and flours from wheat, spelt, and rye.

The Use of Multi Criteria Models for Decision Support on Organic Farms

ABSTRACT The need for reliable information in the organic farm planning process dictates the use of modern decision support methods. The methodology of an integrated deterministic simulation system application for decision-making support on organic farms is described in this article. The deterministic simulation system KARSIM 1.0 consists of 74 deterministic production simulation models that enable different types of costs and financial feasibility calculations for organic production and food processing. The KARSIM 1.0 was applied on a sample organic farm for the simulation of five different business alternatives. The simulation model results are further evaluated with two multi-objective analysis methods: analytical hierarchical process (Expert Choice Decision Support System software) and DEX-i expert system (computer software for multi attribute decision making). Alternative 3 (spelt grain processing) results with the highest multi-objective decision evaluation (Expert Choice = 0.275 and DEX-i evaluation = very good). The combination of deterministic cost simulation model and multi criteria decision analysis with the emphasis on financial, technological, market and risk objective presents a powerful decision support tool for organic farms, however, further improvement and development of proposed methodology would be suggested.

Contents of a storage pit from late Bronze Age Stillfried, Austria: another record of the "new" glume wheat

Since Jones et al. (2000) drew attention to a "new" type of glume wheat from Neolithic and Bronze Age sites in northern Greece, several finds of this morphologically distinct tetraploid wheat form have been made across central and southeastern Europe. Charred remains of this wheat, dating from 819–1031 cal b.c., have also been discovered in a storage pit at late Bronze Age Stillfried, eastern Austria. As both chaff and grains were found, it was not only possible to match the diagnostic features of the spikelet bases to the "new" form, but also to examine the grains, which are strikingly long, slender and flat. A dorsal ridge is absent and there is no hump above the embryo. The embryo angle is relatively low and compression lines are much more distinct. Within the Stillfried store "new" glume wheat grains were also easily separable from two-grained einkorn and spelt grains. The morphology of the grains is not inconsistent with the suggestion that the "new" type glume wheat might correspond to modern Triticum timopheevi. In Stillfried "new" glume wheat was grown as a winter crop, and it seems to have been cultivated as a maslin (mixed crop) together with T. monococcum (einkorn).