Spelling Disorders Research Articles

Remote treatment of developmental dyslexia: how ADHD comorbidity, clinical history and treatment repetition may affect its efficacy.

Tachidino is a web-based platform for remote treatment of reading and spelling disorders. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the possible impact of different clinical conditions on the efficacy of treatment. The focus was on possible ADHD comorbidity-related effects on the outcomes of the Tachidino treatment, and the impact of previous treatments, such as speech and language therapy or the repetition of the same Tachidino program. 136 children with developmental dyslexia received four-weeks treatment via the Tachidino platform. Improvements in reading and writing scores were compared between different subgroups. No gross differences emerged in treatment effectiveness between groups of children. Children receiving treatment improved significantly more than untreated children. Treatment with Tachidino brought significant benefits for all children, irrespective of comorbidity, clinical history or treatment repetition. Comparison with an untreated control group (waiting list) made it possible to exclude that improvement was due to test-retest learning effects.

Spelling Proficiency of Children with a Resolved Phonological Speech Sound Disorder Treated with an Integrated Approach-A Long-Term Follow-Up Randomized Controlled Trial.

Phonological developmental speech sound disorders (pDSSD) in childhood are often associated with later difficulties in literacy acquisition. The present study is a follow-up of the randomized controlled trial (RCT) on the effectiveness of PhonoSens, a treatment for pDSSD that focuses on improving auditory self-monitoring skills and categorial perception of phoneme contrasts, which could have a positive impact on later spelling development. Our study examines the spelling abilities of 26 German-speaking children (15 girls, 11 boys; mean age 10.1 years, range 9.3-11.2 years) 3-6 years after their successful completion of the PhonoSens treatment. Spelling assessment revealed that only 3 out of 26 participants developed a spelling disorder. In the overall population of fourth-graders, one in five children showed a spelling deficit; in another study of elementary school children, with resolved pDSSD, 18 of 32 children had a spelling deficit. Thus, the applied pDSSD treatment method appears to be associated with positive spelling development. Multiple regression analysis revealed that among the potentially predictive factors for German-speaking children with resolved pDSSD to develop later spelling difficulties, parental educational level and family risk for developmental language disorder (DLD) had an impact on children's spelling abilities; gender and the child's phonological memory had not.

Dyslexia-Related Hearing Loss Occurs Mainly through the Abnormal Spontaneous Electrical Activity of Spiral Ganglion Neurons.

Dyslexia is a reading and spelling disorder due to neurodevelopmental abnormalities and is occasionally found to be accompanied by hearing loss, but the reason for the associated deafness remains unclear. This study finds that knockout of the dyslexia susceptibility 1 candidate 1 gene (Dyx1c1-/- ) in mice, the best gene for studying dyslexia, causes severe hearing loss, and thus it is a good model for studying the mechanism of dyslexia-related hearing loss (DRHL). This work finds that the Dyx1c1 gene is highly expressed in the mouse cochlea and that the spontaneous electrical activity of inner hair cells and type I spiral ganglion neurons is altered in the cochleae of Dyx1c1-/- mice. In addition, primary ciliary dyskinesia-related phenotypes such as situs inversus and disrupted ciliary structure are seen in Dyx1c1-/- mice. In conclusion, this study gives new insights into the mechanism of DRHL in detail and suggests that Dyx1c1 may serve as a potential target for the clinical diagnosis of DRHL.

Business Strategy for the Development and Marketing of an HTML 5-based Learning Application for Children with Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a reading and spelling disorder that affects children's learning ability. Technology-based learning applications have great potential to help dyslexic children overcome learning challenges. The development of HTML5-based learning apps for children with dyslexia has great potential to improve the quality of their learning. However, the success of this app depends not only on the technological aspects, but also on a well-thought-out business strategy. App development should consider the needs and preferences of the end-users, namely children with dyslexia. Features that support differentiated learning and interactive introduction of material are very important. the marketing strategy should focus on the right market segment and craft relevant messages. Effective communication to parents and educators about the benefits of the app is also an important factor. A sustainable business model must be formulated. Options such as subscriptions, direct sales, or a combination of both should be analyzed taking into account long-term financial aspects. Competition analysis and uniqueness of product value should be clear. The app should be able to compete with similar products and offer added value that sets it apart. This research shows that the development and marketing of an HTML5-based learning app for children with dyslexia requires a well-thought-out business strategy. The success of the app depends not only on the quality of the technology but also on how it is positioned in the market and received by the end user. By combining technology, education, and business elements, this app has the potential to make a positive impact in assisting dyslexic children in the learning process.

PREVALENCE OF LEARNING DISABILITY IN THE MOROCCAN CONTEXT: EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY

The interest given to the manifestations and repercussions of learning disability (LD) is relatively recent in Morocco, not only in research but also in endorsing students and their families to contribute to the assessment of learning disability and how prevalence it, as well as the factors which may influence it, particularly factors linked to the socio-economic level, gender, genetics, and the linguistic environment. This work aims to study LD prevalence, considering the Moroccan educational system specificity. It was conducted based on three main steps: identification, screening, and diagnosis and carried out with 14,605 primary school pupils in 63 public and 16 private schools from 2012 to 2018. The identification is based on tests that seek to assess spelling in Arabic, French, along with arithmetic, to be administered collectively to the students. Screening and diagnosis are undertaken by multidisciplinary teams comprising speech therapists, neuropsychologists, psychologists, psychomotor therapists, and child psychiatrists. As a result, it was revealed that 12% of the students screened present at least one specific learning incident with specific reading disorder (dyslexia) at 11.6% of our sample. Moreover, the specific spelling disorder with a prevalence of 11.52%, and dysgraphia with a prevalence of 4.6%, while in 3% of our sample, we suspected specific disorder of arithmetic skills (dyscalculia). These disorders affect two times more boys than girls. Additionally, their rate is significantly impacted by genetic heritage and linguistic environment. However, the association between the socio-economic profile and the prevalence of learning disabilities has not been established.

Problems of Dyslexia, Dyspraxia and Dysgraphia in the Development of Written Speech of English in Higher Education and Methodological Recommendations for Its Solution

While learning a foreign language is so important to keep fluency and accuracy. Being knowledgeable in any aspects, literacy skills of foreign languages will influence on our personal growth and professional development. Thus, researchers have been intensively investigating the phenomenon of reading and spelling disorders in learning and teaching foreign languages and, the ways of helping them. There many valuable reasons. Namely, it helps to improve self-confidence self-esteem and brain health. Pupils learn how to be confident to make speech around others and it helps to enhance ones knowledge of foreign languages structures and vocabulary. As well as that, pupils and students develop their analytical thinking. In addition, it is very useful for their financial life that they can expand their job and career opportunities and increase their earn power. Of course there some difficulties with learning foreign languages. We can see that problems with learning English there are dyslexia, dyspraxia and dysgraphia. However, we can use valuable methods for struggling with them.

Reading and spelling disorders in a school‐based population screening in Sicily (Italy)

This research was carried out according to the Italian Consensus Conference on Specific Learning Disability guidelines for screening initiatives. It describes a three-year screening project involving 2.469 students, aged 8-15 years, from various classes of primary, lower and upper secondary schools of Sicily. Students were assessed for reading and spelling skills. Overall, 4.9% met the risk criteria for suspected reading disorder, 6.1% for spelling disorder, while 8.5% for both conditions. Results showed that out of 932 pupils in the primary school, 4.6% met the risk criteria for reading disorder and 6.5% for spelling disorder; out of 855 pupils of the lower secondary school, 5.3% for reading disorder and 5.5% for spelling disorder; out of 652 pupils of the upper secondary school, 4.9% for reading disorder and 6.1% for spelling disorder. No significant difference in the prevalence of students at risk of reading disorder or spelling disorder, within the three grade-levels over 3 years, was found. At project conclusion further clinical investigation to verify the screening results on student sub-sample (57%) was carried out. The percentage of students with SLD was equal to 3.15%, in the primary school, 3.76% in the lower secondary school and 2.51%, in the upper secondary school.

Gender Differences in the Comorbidity of ADHD Symptoms and Specific Learning Disorders in a Population-Based Sample

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often exhibit comorbid specific learning disorders. In clinical samples, comorbidity in girls with ADHD tends to be more common than in boys with ADHD. However, this is not the case in studies of random samples. In this paper gender differences in the comorbidity of ADHD symptoms and learning disorders in reading, spelling and math are explored in a population-based sample of 2605 3rd and 4th graders (1304 girls) without symptoms of ADHD and 415 (141 girls) with symptoms of ADHD. Girls with ADHD symptoms had higher ratios of comorbid math disorders than boys with ADHD symptoms, but not with reading or spelling disorders. Math achievement was predicted by gender and by symptoms of inattention. Girls with ADHD symptoms and math disorders received the same amount of additional support from teachers or therapists as boys with ADHD symptoms and math disorders. Our results highlight the importance of exploring the increased comorbidity of specific learning disorders in children with ADHD symptoms and especially with math disorders in girls with ADHD symptoms. Implications for providing suitable interventions and preventing the accumulation of academic problems are discussed.

Missed opportunities: The new ICD-11 diagnostic guidelines for reading, spelling and calculation disorders

Missed opportunities: The new ICD-11 diagnostic guidelines for reading, spelling and calculation disorders Abstract. Abstract. The introduction of the ICD-11 caused changes to the concept of the disorder and in the diagnostic criteria of reading, spelling, and arithmetic disorders. ICD-10 had classified these disorders as specific development disorders of scholastic skills, whereas ICD-11 summarizes these disorders as developmental learning disorders in the groups of "neurodevelopmental disorders," together with ADHD, depression, autism, Tourette's syndrome, and schizophrenia. A major change is the classification of an isolated reading disorder and the expansion of the spelling disorder as a learning disorder with impairment in written expression. The diagnostic criteria still focus on the IQ discrepancy criterion, which is no longer supported in practice or by the research results.

Comparison of the effectiveness of Fernald and Rossner's multisensory teaching method on reducing the spelling disorder of elementary students

Background: Writing disorders have an adverse effect on a student's academic achievement in school. These children need to learn new concepts or skills that they have not learned in the usual way through new methods such as multisensory teaching. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare the effectiveness of Fernald and Rossner multisensory teaching method on reducing the spelling disorder of elementary school students in Tehran. Materials and Methods: Using multi-stage cluster sampling method, 120 research samples were selected from third and fourth grade elementary school students in districts 6 and 11 of Tehran in the academic year of 2018-2019 and randomly divided into two experimental groups (60 students). And witnesses (60 people) were divided. The research instruments included the Fallah Chai Spelling Test (1974), the Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children, and the Fernald and Rossner Multisensory Teaching Protocol.Results: Students who were influenced by Fernald's multisensory teaching method were more effective than Rossner in reducing post-test spelling disorders. Also, students who were influenced by Rossner's multisensory teaching method were more effective than the control group in reducing spelling disorders in the post-test. Finally, the effectiveness of Fernald's sensory method was greater than that of Rossner's sensory training method.Conclusion: The results showed that Fernald and Rossner's multisensory teaching method was effective on students with spelling disorders. There is also a difference between the effectiveness of Fernald and Rossner's sensory training method in reducing spelling disorders, stating that Fernand's sensory method is more effective than Rossner's sensory method.

Preliminary Validation of the CI-FRA Checklist: A Simple Screening Tool for Measuring the Early Signs of Reading and Spelling Disorders in Italian Primary Students.

Although several screening tests for recognizing early signs of reading and spelling difficulties have been developed, brief and methodologically grounded tools for teachers are very limited. The present study aimed to lay the foundation for a new screening tool for teachers: the Checklist for early Indicators of risk Factors in Reading Ability (CI-FRA). The proposed checklist consists of 20 items, based on a 7-point Likert scale, and it investigates five domains: reading, writing, attention, and motor skills. Six hundred sixty-seven children were evaluated by 40 teachers during the first year of primary school and, longitudinally, in the second year. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were applied to verify structural validity. Concurrent validity was assessed by Spearman correlation to analyze the link between CI-FRA and reading and spelling standardized tests and cognitive tests. Reliability was assessed by Cronbach α and interclass correlation coefficient. The CFA reported a three-factor structure as the optimal solution, including language (reading and writing), visuospatial attention, and fine motor skills subscales. Good reliability, good internal consistency, and acceptable test–retest indices were found. Concurrent validity was confirmed by significant correlations between CI-FRA total score and standardized reading and spelling test, as well as by correlations between CI-FRA subscales and neuropsychological standardized test scores. Preliminary evaluation of sensitivity by receiver operating characteristic curves showed that the CI-FRA score has particularly high sensitivity and specificity for word reading speed deficit. In conclusion, the results confirm that CI-FRA is a theoretically grounded and statistically valid tool that could help the teachers to screen for early signs of reading and spelling difficulties.

Dyslexia and cognitive impairment in adult patients with myotonic dystrophy type 1: a clinical prospective analysis

BackgroundCognitive impairments in patients with myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) have often been described, however, there are only few studies differentiating between partial performance disorders and mental retardation in common. This study focused on the evaluation of reading performance and the frequency of dyslexia in adult DM1 patients.MethodsWe performed a prospective cohort study including genetically confirmed adult DM1 patients registered in the DM registry of Germany or the internal database of the Friedrich-Baur-Institute, Munich, Germany. For the assessment of the patients’ reading and spelling performance, we used the standardized and validated test ‚Salzburger Lese- und Rechtschreibtest‘ (SLRT II). The ‚CFT-20 R Grundintelligenztest Skala 2‘ in revised ("R") version (CFT 20-R), determining the intelligence level, was appropriate to differentiate between dyslexia and general mental retardation. The diagnosis of dyslexia, the combined reading and spelling disorder, was based on the guidelines for diagnosis and therapy of children and adolescents with dyslexia 2015 (S3-guideline) providing (1) the criterion of the divergence from age level and (2) the criterion of IQ-divergence.ResultsFifty-seven DM1 patients participated in our study. Evaluating the reading performance, 16 patients fulfilled the divergence criteria of the age level and 2 patients the IQ-divergence criteria. In total, the diagnosis of a reading disorder was given in 18 DM1 patients (31.6 %). In 11 out of these 18 patients with a reading disorder, a relevant impairment of spelling performance was observed with at least three spelling errors. As there are no normative values for adults in spelling performance, we assume a combined reading disorder and dyslexia, in those 11 DM1 patients (19.3 %). Regarding the separate analyses of the test procedures, in the SLRT II the performance was below average in 40.4 % of all patients for ‘word reading’ and in 61.4 % of all patients for ‘pseudoword reading’. There was a significant positive correlation between the CTG expansion size and a reading disorder (p=0.027). The average IQ of 17 examined DM1 patients was in the lower normal range (86.1 ± 19.1). 54.5 % of patients with reading disorder had a normal IQ.ConclusionThe calculated prevalence of dyslexia in the DM1 study cohort was 19.3 % and thus considerably increased compared to the normal German population. As dyslexia is not equivalent to a general cognitive impairment, it is important not to miss dyslexic features in cognitive inconspicuous DM1 patients. Case-by-case one should consider a differential diagnostic approach, as individualized therapies can be offered to support dyslexic patients in their performance.

Comorbidities Between Specific Learning Disorders and Psychopathology in Elementary School Children in Germany.

Children with reading and/or spelling disorders have increased rates of behavioral and emotional problems and combinations of these. Some studies also find increased rates of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), conduct disorder, anxiety disorder, and depression. However, the comorbidities of, e.g., arithmetic disorders with ADHD, anxiety disorder, and depression have been addressed only rarely. The current study explored the probability of children with specific learning disorders (SLD) in reading, spelling, and/or arithmetic to also have anxiety disorder, depression, ADHD, and/or conduct disorder. The sample consisted of 3,014 German children from grades 3 and 4 (mean age 9;9 years) who completed tests assessing reading, spelling as well as arithmetic achievement and intelligence via a web-based application. Psychopathology was assessed using questionnaires filled in by the parents. In children with a SLD we found high rates of anxiety disorder (21%), depression (28%), ADHD (28%), and conduct disorder (22%). Children with SLD in multiple learning domains had a higher risk for psychopathology and had a broader spectrum of psychopathology than children with an isolated SLD. The results highlight the importance of screening for and diagnosing psychiatric comorbidities in children with SLD.

Developmental disorders of academic skills in children: the efficacy and safety of Tenoten for children in the multicenter double-blind placebo-controlled randomized study

To evaluate the efficacy and safety of tenoten for children in the treatment of specific developmental disorders of academic skills in children of 1-3 grades. Two hundred and forty children, aged 7-9 years, (Total set, Safety population) with verified specific reading disorder (F81.0), specific spelling disorder (F81.1), specific disorder of arithmetical skills (F81.2), mixed disorder of scholastic skills (F81.3; F81.2+F81.0, or F81.2+F81.1, or F81.2+F81.0+F81.1), diagnosed with the use of logopedic or psychological testing (15-35 scores in Fotekova T.A. and Akhutina T.V. reading and writing tests; 5-15 scores in arithmetical subscale of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) were enrolled in the study. CT was conducted in 10 clinical centers in Russian Federation in 2015- 2019. Patients were randomized into two groups. The first one (n=122) received tenoten for children in a dose of 1 tablet 3 times a day, the second one (n=118) was administered placebo in the same dosage regimen. The clinical data on 237 children (121 of the tenoten group and 116 of the placebo group) were used for Intention-to-treat efficacy analysis. Data on 220 children (115 of the tenoten group and 105 of the placebo group) were included in Per-protocol analysis. The duration of study was 12 weeks. The mean total academic skills (reading, spelling, and counting) score in groups after 12 weeks of treatment was set as the primary efficacy endpoint. The mean total academic skills score increased by 18.55±15.87 points. The significant total difference between the median changes in the total score in the tenoten and placebo groups was 5 points. There was a trend towards positive changes in reading and spelling mean scores in tests that didn't reach statistical significance due to lack of normal distribution of points in samples. There were 73 adverse events (AEs) in 42 patients of the tenoten group and 95 AEs in 31 children of the placebo group. No serious or severe AEs were registered in the tenoten group. No AEs definitely related to the study treatment were registered. No negative drug interactions were observed in the tenoten group. Tenoten for children is an effective and safe treatment for specific developmental disorders of academic skills in primary school children. Tenoten for children is well tolerated. The treatment is characterized by a high level of adherence of children and their parents to therapy.

Naming processes in reading and spelling disorders: An electrophysiological investigation

ObjectiveReading fluency deficits characteristic for reading disorders (RD; F81.0) have been shown to be strongly associated with slow naming speed (e.g. in rapid automatized naming tasks). In contrast, children with an isolated spelling disorder in the context of unimpaired reading skills (iSD; F81.1) show naming speed task performances that are similar to typically developing (TD) children. However, the exact nature of the naming speed deficit and its relation to RD and the question whether children with iSD are also on the neurophysiological level similar to TD children is still unresolved. MethodsThe time-course and scalp topography of event-related potentials (ERP) activity recorded during a delayed digit-naming task was investigated in ten-year-old children with RD and iSD compared to a TD group. ResultsERP activity differed between the RD and the TD group at around 300 ms after stimulus presentation (left occipito-temporal P2). In contrast, there were no neurophysiological differences between the TD and the iSD group. The P2 component correlated with behavioural performance on the RAN task. ConclusionsSlow naming speed in RD might result from a slowed-down access and prolonged processing of the word (lexical) form. SignificanceThe study establishes a relation between neurophysiological processes of naming tasks and RD.

A blind student with dyslexia - An overview of the problem

The basic purpose of this paper is to present selected theoretical and empirical facts concerning dyslexia, taking into account specific reading and spelling disorders experienced by the sighted and the blind who normally use a tactile writing system (braille) to read and write. The article’s content is focused on such key issues as: the terminology (a review of definitions), the symptomatology and etiology of dyslexia. In the light of the collected qualitative data and empirical research findings, dyslexia is likely to occur in blind braille-reading and braille-writing students. The symptoms of dyslexia may be observable in both contracted and uncontracted braille. They may be linked to the phonological processing deficits. The causes of dyslexia in the blind population can be explained in line with the genetic conception and the magnocellular theory by Stein and colleagues. However, it is necessary to design more complex studies on braille dyslexia in the future.

Wykorzystywanie instytucjonalnych i innych form terapii przez uczniów z dysortografią

<p>W Polsce istnieje dobrze zorganizowany system pomocy terapeutycznej dla uczniów z dysortografią rozwojową. Celem badań była analiza sposobów korzystania przez dzieci i młodzież z dysortografią z oferty terapeutycznej i innych dostępnych form pomocy. Przeprowadzono badanie ankietowe drogą internetową. Uczestnikami badania byli zarówno rodzice jak i dzieci i młodzież z zaburzeniami w pisaniu. Na podstawie uzyskanych wyników wnioskuje się, że niemal każdy uczeń jest objęty jakąś formą pomocy terapeutycznej. Uczniowie korzystają z terapii instytucjonalnej zwykle tylko raz na tydzień, natomiast domowe ćwiczenia wykonują dwa–trzy razy w tygodniu. Rodzice i dzieci oceniają stosowane metody terapii jako średnio lub/i raczej skuteczne. 82% osób z dysortografią ocenia swoją systematyczność w pracy nad problemem jako bardzo niską, niską i przeciętną. Wskazane jest poszerzanie oferty pomocy terapeutycznych dla uczniów z zaburzeniami w pisaniu.</p>

Predictors of Reading Skills in Children With Listening Concerns.

Previous research shows that children with reading disorders perform poorly on auditory processing (AP) tasks. Correlational studies have also shown significant associations between some AP tasks and word and nonword reading. There is less clear evidence for AP contributions to spelling and passage reading. The aim of this research was to extend current knowledge by investigating the association between a range of AP measures used clinically and children's reading of words, nonwords, and passages, as well as word spelling. Regression analyses were conducted on data from 90 children 7 to 13 years of age (58 males) with reported listening and/or reading concerns. All children had normal hearing sensitivity and were tested on AP tasks including the frequency pattern test (FPT), dichotic digits test, random gap detection test, and the masking level difference. Reading tasks included word, nonword, and passage reading. Phonologic processing, core language skills, nonverbal intelligence, memory, and attention were also measured. All multiregression analyses were fixed order with age and gender, nonverbal intelligence, core language, phoneme manipulation, and digits backward scores included in the model before AP measures. FPT was the only AP task that accounted for significant unique variance in word/nonword reading and nonword spelling, but not passage reading. The findings from this study failed to show an association between many clinically used AP measures and children's reading and spelling outcomes. Nevertheless, they reiterate the importance of evaluating FPT in children with word reading disorders. The findings justify further investigation into the role of this test when diagnosing children with reading or spelling disorders.

How to train your syllable stress awareness - A digital game-based intervention for German dyslexic children

Developmental dyslexia is one of the most frequent learning disorders and affects 4-10 % of the German population. The learning disorder affects educational, personal, and social development of children in a negative way. We examine three different approaches to treat learning disorders. That is, therapeutic, computer-based, and digital game-based interventions. We reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches that have been shown to be supportive for dyslexic primary-school children. Our literature review shows that there is a lack of digital game-based interventions for the treatment of spelling disorders. To fill this gap, we propose such a mobile serious game which uses evidence-based trainings and introduces novel features in order to help dyslexic children to improve their reading and spelling performance. We propose an intervention to train awareness of syllable stress and explore the innovative use of mouth motor activities and embodied trainings. To conclude, we suggest that, in addition to traditional approaches, digital-game based approaches should be used supplementary to (re-) engage and motivate learners.

Neurophysiological correlates of word processing deficits in isolated reading and isolated spelling disorders

ObjectiveIn consistent orthographies, isolated reading disorders (iRD) and isolated spelling disorders (iSD) are nearly as common as combined reading-spelling disorders (cRSD). However, the exact nature of the underlying word processing deficits in isolated versus combined literacy deficits are not well understood yet. MethodsWe applied a phonological lexical decision task (including words, pseudohomophones, legal and illegal pseudowords) during ERP recording to investigate the neurophysiological correlates of lexical and sublexical word-processing in children with iRD, iSD and cRSD compared to typically developing (TD) 9-year-olds. ResultsTD children showed enhanced early sensitivity (N170) for word material and for the violation of orthographic rules compared to the other groups. Lexical orthographic effects (higher LPC amplitude for words than for pseudohomophones) were the same in the TD and iRD groups, although processing took longer in children with iRD. In the iSD and cRSD groups, lexical orthographic effects were evident and stable over time only for correctly spelled words. ConclusionsOrthographic representations were intact in iRD children, but word processing took longer compared to TD. Children with spelling disorders had partly missing orthographic representations. SignificanceOur study is the first to specify the underlying neurophysiology of word processing deficits associated with isolated literacy deficits.