Speed Of Light Research Articles

An Experiment to Test a New Theory in Physics, Fundamentally Different From General Relativity, by Changing the Speed of Light in Electromagnetic Interaction

The fundamental foundation for Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity is the “Curvature of Space and Time” due to a Gravitational Field. In the “Theory o f General Relativity” Gravitational RedShift has been explained by a change in time and space resulting is a change in the observed frequency shift in the spectrum o f the light being emitted by far away Galaxies. The foundation for Einstein’s theory o f General Relativity is a constant value for the speed o f light in the absence of a gravitational field. In the “New Theory” the fundamental foundation is “Equilibrium”. Equilibrium for the “5 fundamental force densities in light” in any direction at any time and at any location. The New Theory describes a changing in the speed of light when corresponding monochromatic beams of light (highly coherent LASER beams) cross each other in different directions which effect would be in contradiction with the fundamental assumption in General Relativity of a constant speed of light. This experiment will be a deter mining test for the New Theory in Physics.

The Schwinger pair production method in the framework of non-commutative phase space coordinates and its applications

In noncommutative phase space (NCPS), we investigate the pair creation rate for the problem of scalar and spinorial particles emerging from a vacuum under the influence of uniform external electromagnetic fields using the Schwinger formal technique. It is demonstrated that under specific conditions, where the speed of light c approaches the Fermi velocity [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] (with [Formula: see text] representing the cyclotron frequency), the behavior of the Dirac oscillator problem in a uniform electromagnetic field within NCPS is akin to the monolayer graphene problem in NCPS. In addition, the production probability per unit volume per unit time is discussed, along with the limits of parameter deformations.

Quantitative Investigation of Parallel Interactions Between Charged Particles

On the premise that the charged particle is a normal geometry model, an expression of the migration current, displacement current and magnetic induction intensity generated by the charged particle motion is deduced according to the microscopic definition of current intensity, the total current law and the Biot-Savart law. Further calculate the electric field force between two charged particles in vacuum, give the velocity constraint relationship and velocity value criterion of the electric and magnetic field forces, and compare the consistency with the correlation results obtained considering the relativistic effect. It is pointed out that the magnetic field force is comparable to the electric field force only when the charged particle moves near the speed of light.

Is it Time to Demolish Current Mathematics?

Current mathematics in 3D geometric space plus real time t as an external control is incomplete and misleading. The dream of theoretical physicists and mathematicians to demolish all current mathematics and replace it with a single universal numerical statistical law in 4D is now within reach. In this paper, we first focus on the introduction and definition of the proposed unitary 4D space. Next, we introduce and explain what we call the modern Laplacian theorem in 4D unit space. Finally, we explain some unexpected and striking numerical results such as measuring the speed of sound in air at 330 m/s and that of light at 3 E8 m/s. There is an inherent relationship between the speed of sound in air and the diffusivity of sound waves in the sound room, similar to the relationship between the speed of light in a vacuum and the thermal diffusivity of metals when they all live two in a 4D unit. space.

Basics of modern modeling and expansion of the relativity theory of time in the field of classical physics

Throughout history, many scientists considered time as the result of changing the world and believed that time is not true. Among those who say that time is not true, Einstein is the only one who was able to mathematically explain the relativity of time in the field of geometry (space time) and present his equations in relativistic physics. Although Einstein, like other scientists, did not provide a clear definition of time, he presented the relativity of time well. He showed that time is not independent of space and bends along with space. Also, Einstein used the speed of light to convert mass into energy to introduce the law of mass–energy equivalence. Currently, basic laws such as conservation of mass, conservation of energy and equivalence of mass and energy have been presented. Recently, due to the importance of time in the development of science, especially in the field of water and chemistry, “timemass equivalence law” has also been presented (by the author). In this research, with the aim of expanding the relativity of time in the flows of mass and energy (not the field of motion and geometry), while presenting new definitions of “phenomenon”, “time” and “specific speed of transformation”, in addition to the theory of “mass equivalence law” “Time” was completed, the general equations of equivalence of energy time—and timemass were introduced. Then, to check the results more accurately, the general masstime equation (in this study, absorption kinetics) by performing surface absorption experiments of heavy metals (Fe + 2, Pb + 2, Zn + 2, Ni + 2, Cd + 2, Cu + 2)) was investigated by the adsorbents of green walnut shell (GWH) and its biochar (GWHB), and the results are tested in different ways.

Analysis of Consumer Behavior in Repeat Purchases of a Product

This study analyzes consumer behavior in repeat purchases of a product, specifically focusing on the case of Light Speed Reborn football and futsal shoes, a locally produced brand in Indonesia. In today's competitive industrial environment, companies strive to cultivate loyal customers, as this loyalty provides a strategic advantage in ensuring future product purchases. The observed phenomenon in this study highlights the repetitive buying behavior of consumers towards Light Speed Reborn shoes, despite only minimal changes in the product's color or design. In Samarinda, these shoes consistently sell out, with many football and futsal players purchasing the same model in different colors. This study employs a qualitative descriptive approach to explore the underlying reasons for this repetitive purchasing behavior, aiming to understand the factors that drive consumer loyalty towards this specific product. Findings indicate that factors such as customer satisfaction, product quality, affordability, comfort, trends, environmental influence, and the strong brand image contribute significantly to the consumers' repeat purchases. The results suggest that brand loyalty and perceived value play crucial roles in fostering repeat purchases of Light Speed Reborn shoes in the Indonesian market.

Optical transmission and refraction at the atomic level

Abstract The standard explanations for the phenomena of transmission and refraction of electromagnetic waves of optical wavelengths upon entering a transparent medium is in terms of the speed of the waves being altered. However, these phenomena are explicable without assuming that the speed of electromagnetic waves changes. The actual speed does not alter in various media but is customarily assumed to do so as this facilitates straight-forward calculations and allows easily understood explanations to be advanced. An underlying account of transmission and refraction at the level of individual atoms is presented in which the speed of electromagnetic waves remains constant.

Holographic multi-photon 3D laser nanoprinting – at the speed of light: opinion

In this opinion article, we discuss the possibility of printing three-dimensional macroscopic architectures with nanometer feature size by irradiating a light-sensitive ink with a single, spatiotemporally shaped, short laser pulse. We argue that the peak print rate of this approach may reach 1020-1021 voxels s-1, surpassing the present state-of-the-art of about 108 voxels s-1 by a very large margin.

Non-relativistic expansion of open strings and D-branes

We expand the relativistic open bosonic string in powers of 1/c2 where c is the speed of light. We perform this expansion to next-to-leading order in 1/c2 and relate our results to known descriptions of non-relativistic open strings obtained by taking limits. Just as for closed strings the non-relativistic expansion is well-defined if the open string winds a circle in the target space. This direction must satisfy Dirichlet boundary conditions. It is shown that the endpoints of the open string behave as Bargmann particles in the non-relativistic regime. These open strings end on nrDp-branes with p ≤ 24. When these nrDp-branes do not fluctuate they correspond to (p + 1)-dimensional Newton-Cartan submanifolds of the target space. When we include fluctuations and worldvolume gauge fields their dynamics is described by a non-relativistic version of the DBI action whose form we derive from symmetry considerations. The worldvolume gauge field and scalar field of a nrD24-brane make up the field content of Galilean electrodynamics (GED), and the effective theory on the nrD24-brane is precisely a non-linear version of GED. We generalise these results to actions for any nrDp-brane by demanding that they have the same target space gauge symmetries that the non-relativistic open and closed string actions have. Finally, we show that the nrDp-brane action is transverse T-duality covariant. Our results agree with the findings of Gomis, Yan and Yu in [1].

Discussion of y-matter

For more than 30 years, the author of this paper has discovered the existence of the matter unknown to people in the study of some special photos. This matter is extremely different from the matter known by modern science. The author of this paper temporarily names this matter y-matter. In contrast with y-matter, the matter known by modern science (macroscopic matter, microscopic matter) is called x- matter. In this paper, a number of photos are provided to show the existence of y-matter. In the photos, the objects composed of y-matter (y-objects) are seeable in the photos but were invisible to the naked eye when the photos were taken. In modern science, the substances that are invisible to the naked eye but can be photographed include x-rays, infrared rays, ultraviolet rays, etc. However, the y-objects shown in the photos in this paper do not belong to these substances. Y-objects can react chemically with the substances on the camera film, so y-objects are indeed made of matter. This paper then discusses some physical properties of y-matter. Y-objects have no static mass and no momentum. They have density and motion. The maximum speed of the movement can exceed the speed of light, etc. This article first uses photos to show the movement of a y-matter object. Then, this paper explores the relationship between y-matter and thinking. People can use thinking to move certain y-objects under certain conditions. The research in this article opens up the unknown world of matter, which will change human concepts and promote the epoch-making development of science and technology. The future research is to study the conditions under which y-objects can be photographed.

Fundamental Laws and Quantum Dynamics

Background: Recently, we obtained a unitary theory of quantum mechanics and general relativity, where a quantum particle is a continuous distribution of matter in the two conjugate spaces of the coordinates and momentum, quantized by the equality of the mass parameter describing the relativistic dynamics of the matter, with the mass as an integral of the matter density. However, in this framework, we have not explicitly revealed the connection between our new theory and the fundamental laws of quantum mechanics. Methods: We analyzed in detail the three fundamental laws of quantum mechanics, explicitly describing experimental data: 1) Planck’s law of the blackbody electromagnetic radiation of a system of electrically charged harmonic oscillators, 2) Einstein’s law of the photon energy proportionality with the photon frequency, and 3) de Broglie’s law of the quantum particle as an oscillator in space. Results: We reobtained the two dynamical equations, in the conjugate spaces of the coordinates and momentum, as functions of the Lagrangian system, unlike the Schrödinger equation, depending on the Hamiltonian. Conclusion: According to the fundamental laws of quantum mechanics, a quantum particle is a continuous distribution of matter with an intrinsic mass, unlike the conventional quantum mechanics for the state occupation probabilities of punctual entities moving with the light velocity and getting an apparent mass only by collisions with some bosons pervading the whole universe. According to these laws, we obtained a quantum theory in agreement with common sense, classical logic, and general relativity.

Conformal structure of singularities in some varying fundamental constants bimetric cosmologies

In this paper, we explore the conformal structure of singularities arising from varying fundamental constants using the method of Penrose diagrams. We employ a specific type of bimetric model featuring two different metrics. One metric describes the causal structure for matter, while the other characterizes the causal structure for gravitational interactions, which is related to variations in fundamental constants such as the gravitational constant and the speed of light. For this reason, we focused on the gravitational metric to calculate the conformal transformation and compose Penrose diagrams for the singularities arising from the varying fundamental constants. We have shown that, in one case, the parameter such as the scale factor, the density and the pressure resemble those of the finite scale factor singularity (FSF). Despite singularity appears in constant conformal time in our case and in the case of FSF the Misner-Sharp horizon looks different. Our another case is similar to sudden future singularity (SFS), but there are differences in the conformal structures. We have also shown that in our cases the behavior of Misner-Sharp horizon strongly depends on initial conditions. The last analytical solution which we introduced is identical to conformal structure of the standard exotic singularity for the matter.

Local quenches in fracton field theory: Lieb-Robinson bound, noncausal dynamics and fractal excitation patterns

We study the out-of-equilibrium dynamics induced by a local perturbation in fracton field theory. For the Z4- and Z8-symmetric free fractonic theories, we compute the time dynamics of several observables such as the two-point Green’s function, ⟨ϕ2⟩ condensate, energy density, and the dipole momentum. The time-dependent considerations highlight that the free fractonic theory breaks causality and exhibits instantaneous signal propagation, even if an additional relativistic term is included to enforce a speed limit in the system. We show that it is related to the fact that the Lieb-Robinson bound does not hold in the continuum limit of the fracton field theory, and the effective bounded speed of light does not emerge. For the theory in finite volume, we show that the fracton wave front acquires fractal shape with nontrivial Hausdorff dimension and argue that this phenomenon cannot be explained by a simple self-interference effect. Published by the American Physical Society 2024

Variations in Diffusion Coefficients on Equinox Days at Specified Critical Heights of the Ionosphere at the Equator

This study investigates the local time diffusion coefficient for stable and unstable ( , ) states at the equator (00), "the geographical latitude where the first peak of the magnetic equatorial trough in the ionosphere occurs," during the spring and fall equinoxes (March 21 and September 23). The findings show that the diffusion tensor in a steady state is completely real and has a magnitude equal to the speed of light in a steady state. But in the unsteady state, the diffusion tensor consists of two parts, real and imaginary. The diagonal elements of the real part tensor are of the size of the conductivity in the ionosphere and the elements of the imaginary part are of the size of the speed of sound with about the same magnitude. Furthermore, for all assumed conditions, the diffusion elements form the first peak of the magnetic equatorial trough at 6.00 am local time.

Quantum double slit experiment with reversible detection of photons

Principle of quantum superposition permits a photon to interfere with itself. As per the principle of causality, a photon must pass through the double-slit prior to its detection on the screen to exhibit interference. In this paper, a double-slit quantum interference experiment with reversible detection of Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen quantum entangled photons is presented. Where a photon is first detected on a screen without passing through a double-slit, while the second photon is propagating towards the double-slit. A detection event on the screen cannot affect the second photon with any signal propagating at the speed of light, even after its passage through the double-slit. After the detection of the first photon on the screen, the second photon is either passed through the double-slit or diverted towards a stationary photon detector. Therefore, the question of whether the first photon carries the which-path information of the second photon in the double-slit is eliminated. No single photon interference is exhibited by the second photon, even if another screen is placed after the double-slit.

Visualizing plasmons and ultrafast kinetic instabilities in laser-driven solids using X-ray scattering

Ultra-intense lasers that ionize atoms and accelerate electrons in solids to near the speed of light can lead to kinetic instabilities that alter the laser absorption and subsequent electron transport, isochoric heating, and ion acceleration. These instabilities can be difficult to characterize, but X-ray scattering at keV photon energies allows for their visualization with femtosecond temporal resolution on the few nanometer mesoscale. Here, we perform such experiment on laser-driven flat silicon membranes that shows the development of structure with a dominant scale of 60 nm in the plane of the laser axis and laser polarization, and 95 nm in the vertical direction with a growth rate faster than 0.1 fs−1. Combining the XFEL experiments with simulations provides a complete picture of the structural evolution of ultra-fast laser-induced plasma density development, indicating the excitation of plasmons and a filamentation instability. Particle-in-cell simulations confirm that these signals are due to an oblique two-stream filamentation instability. These findings provide new insight into ultra-fast instability and heating processes in solids under extreme conditions at the nanometer level with possible implications for laser particle acceleration, inertial confinement fusion, and laboratory astrophysics.

Three-Dimensional Lorentz-Invariant Velocities

Lorentz invariance underlies special relativity, and the energy formula and relative velocity formula are well known to be invariant under a Lorentz transformation. Here, we determine the functional forms in terms of four arbitrary functions for those three dimensional velocity fields that are automatically invariant under the most general fully three-dimensional Lorentz transformation. For general three-dimensional motion, using rectangular Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z), we determine the first-order partial differential equations for the three velocity components u(x,y,z,t), v(x,y,z,t) and w(x,y,z,t) in the x−, y− and z−directions respectively. These partial differential equations and the associated partial differential relations connecting energy and momentum are fully compatible with the Lorentz-invariant energy–momentum relations and appear not to have been given previously in the literature. We determine the spatial and temporal dependence of the functional forms for those three-dimensional velocity fields that are automatically invariant under three-dimensional Lorentz transformations. An interesting special case gives rise to families of particle paths for which the magnitude of the velocity is the speed of light. This is indicative of the abundant possibilities existing in the “fast lane”.

Energetic explosions from collisions of stars at relativistic speeds in galactic nuclei

Aims. We investigated collisions that could occur between stars moving near the speed of light around supermassive black holes (SMBHs) with mass M• ≳ 108 M⊙, without being tidally disrupted. Within this approximate SMBH mass range, for sun-like stars, the tidal-disruption radius is smaller than the SMBH’s event horizon; therefore we did not anticipate tidal disruption events (TDEs). Methods. Differential collision rates were calculated by defining probability distribution functions for various parameters of interest, such as the impact parameter, distance from the SMBH at the time of the collision, the relative velocity between the two colliding stars, and the masses of the two colliding stars. The relative velocity parameter was drawn from an appropriate distribution function for SMBHs. We integrated over all these parameters to arrive at a total collision rate for a galaxy with a specific SMBH mass. We then considered how the stellar population in the vicinity of the SMBH was depleted and replenished over time, and calculated the effect this can have on the collision rate over time. We further calculated the differential collision rate as a function of the total energy released, the energy released per unit mass lost, and the galactocentric radius. Results. The overall rate for collisions taking place within the inner ∼1 pc of galaxies with M• = 108, 109, and 1010 M⊙ are Γ ∼ 2.2 × 10−3, 2.2 × 10−4, and 4.7 × 10−5 yr−1, respectively. The most common collisions would release energies on the order of ∼1049 − 1051 ergs, with the energy distribution peaking at higher energies in galaxies with more massive SMBHs. In addition, we examined sample light curves for collisions with varying parameters, and find that the peak luminosity could reach or even exceed that of superluminous supernovae (SLSNe), albeit in the case of light curves with much shorter durations. Conclusions. Weaker events may initially be mistaken for low-luminosity supernovae. In addition, we note that these events would likely create streams of debris that would accrete onto the SMBH, potentially creating accretion flares that may resemble TDEs.

Projection factor and radii of Type II Cepheids

Context. Type II Cepheids are old pulsating stars that can be used to trace the distribution of an old stellar population and to measure distances to globular clusters and galaxies within several megaparsecs, and by extension, they can improve our understanding of the cosmic distance scale. One method that can be used to measure the distances of Type II Cepheids relies on period-luminosity relations, which are quite widely explored in the literature. The semi-geometrical Baade-Wesselink technique is another method that allows distances of radially pulsating stars, such as Type II Cepheids, to be measured if the so-called projection factor is known. However, the literature concerning this parameter for Type II Cepheids is limited to just a few pioneering works. Aims. In determining projection factors for eight nearby short-period Type II Cepheids, also known as BL Her type stars, we aim to calibrate the Baade-Wesselink method for measuring distances for this class of stars. Methods. Using the surface brightness-colour relation version of the Baade-Wesselink technique, we determined the projection factors and radii of eight nearby BL Her type stars. We adopted accurate distances of target stars from Gaia Data Release 3. Time series photometry in the V and KS bands have been collected with two telescopes located at the RolfChini Cerro Murphy Observatory (former Cerro Armazones Observatory), while spectroscopic data have been obtained within dedicated programmes with instruments hosted by the European Southern Observatory. Results. The measured projection factors for the stars with good quality data are in the range between 1.21 and 1.36. The typical uncertainty of projection factors is 0.1. The mean value is 1.330 ± 0.058, which gives the uncertainty of ∼4%. The main sources of uncertainty on the p-factors are statistical errors of the Baade-Wesselink fit (related to the dispersion and coverage of light and radial velocity curves) and parallax. In the case of radii, the biggest contribution to the error budget comes from the KS band photometry’s systematic uncertainty and parallax. The determined radii allowed us to construct the period-radius relation for BL Her stars. Our period-radius relation is in good agreement with the previous empirical calibration, while two theoretical calibrations found in the literature agree with our relation within 2σ. We also confirm that BL Her and RR Lyr stars obey an apparent common period-radius relation.

Theory of Time – 2024 R (Universal Theory for Everything)

“Theory of Time” is a research and analysis report on ‘All kind of Transformation processes’ to find out the reason for changes, this is a Universal Theory & applicable for all natural phenomena. I had found some systematic/ logical/ relational imbalance among the principles of AC Transformer, Ohm’s law, series parallel circuits and law of conservation of energy. I did systematic analysis and research on above said combination principles and identified / formulated/ organized a common transformation mechanism for all and is called ‘Universal Transformation System’(UTS). Here, relative components of all kind of transformation systems are determined, organized systematically for better understanding on relations and also all physical phenomena mechanisms are interpreted through the lens of UTS & found the reformed results are meeting with the general/ natural principles of all kind of transformation systems. I did deeper and wider analysis on electro-magnetic circuits to understand the structure/ mechanism of the transformation system. Law of conservation of energy, AC Transformer’s principles, Newton’s laws and Ohm’s law are base for this theory. By doing relational analysis I could derive Equivalent mechanical transformation principles from Electricity Transformation principles and Mechanical Resistance () to Transformation (RMech.) equation has been successfully formulated. Finally Obtained / reformed results are compared with our practical science and found that the derived principles are meeting with the natural principles of system and its transformation processes. Further, explaining about “how the time is running?”; “what are all the relative components of the time?”; Whether is it possible to stop the time running process? etc. This ©2024 is going to be the final/ completed report on ‘Theory of Time’… in the name of ‘Theory of Nature’. I have finished my research and analysis on all kind of transformation systems. This is updated one, here, I have added some new analysis on secret behind the Black Hole, exact mechanism of Gyroscopic Effects, Donut formation of matter, about human beings, ‘Relation between Centripetal and Centrifugal controls’, importance of Newton’s Absolute time, galactic control on solar system, gravity generator, fusion generator, mechanism of Lagrange Points, there are two differences only in all, review on General Relativity & Special Relativity, constancy of light speed under UTS, optimized free body diagrams, Thermodynamics, ‘𝒎𝒗𝒓’ under UTS, atomic formation structures under gravity & electromagnetism, soul, Law & Justice, tug of war, all mechanisms, you &me