Speech Patterns Research Articles

Speech Discrimination Outcomes in Adult Cochlear Implant Recipients by Primary Language and Bilingual Hispanic Patients.

Compare cochlear implant (CI) outcomes in English speakers, Spanish speakers, and bilingual Hispanics. Retrospective review. Academic tertiary care center. Eighty-five postlingually deafened adults unilaterally implanted between January 2014 and December 2018 were stratified by primary language. Primary outcomes were: (1) English consonant-nucleus-consonant and Spanish bisyllables word tests in quiet, and (2) English AzBio and Latin American Hearing In Noise Test (LA-HINT) sentence tests in quiet and in noise at multiple time-intervals postactivation. In the respective languages, primary Spanish speakers(n = 24), and English speakers (n = 61) experienced the greatest increases in average scores for word and sentence tests in quiet during the first 6 months postactivation, with gradual increases in average scores over time. English speakers performed significantly worse on AzBio tests in noise, compared to quiet, while the addition of noise did not significantly affect average LA-HINT scores in Spanish speakers across multiple time intervals. An early ceiling effect was also demonstrated for LA-HINT. Although not significant, bilingual Hispanics (n = 12) had lower average AzBio in quiet scores than English speakers and higher average LA-HINT in quiet scores than the Spanish speakers across multiple time intervals. English and Spanish CI users experienced the greatest increases in speech understanding in quiet the first few months after implant activation. An early ceiling effect is demonstrated with LA-HINT, indicating LA-HINT is not appropriate for evaluating longitudinal CI outcomes in Spanish speakers. Bilingual Hispanics represent a unique group, and further investigations are necessary to understand speech perception patterns in both languages and develop the best CI test strategies for these individuals.

Tindak Tutur Ekspresif Dalam Novel Cinta Suci Zahrana Karya Habiburrahman El Shirazy

The two topics covered in this study are: (1) the usage of diverse expressive speech actions in Habiburrahman El Shirazy's Cinta Suci Zahrana novel and (2) the speech act techniques employed in the novel. The novel Cinta Suci Zahrana by Habiburrahman El Shirazy's expressive utterances served as the study's source of data. It uses qualitative data. The data collection techniques in this study were: (1) recognizing and analyzing the context of the discussion that includes expressive speech acts in the book Cinta Suci Zahrana by Habiburrahman El Shirazy, (2) determining the intent and purpose of the utterances conveyed by speakers according to the speech situation, (3) comprehending and evaluating the speech patterns utilized by the characters in the book Cinta Suci Zahrana by Habiburrahman El Shirazy, (4) Making a list of the expressive speech acts utilized by the characters in Habiburrahman El Shirazy's Cinta Suci Zahrana. Additionally, the following steps were taken in the analysis of the data in this study: (1) identify data on the variety of expressive speech acts and speech strategies obtained, (2) classify the data based on research objectives, and (3) linking the data analyzed with the theory used in research. This study came to two conclusions. In the book Cinta Suci Zahrana, there are six different categories of expressive speaking acts. Second, Habiburrahman El Shirazy's Cinta Suci Zahrana employs five speech-acting techniques.

The interpretation of [+distal] in demonstratives and complementizers

AbstractThis article argues that the [+distal] feature of demonstrativethatis also present in complementizerthat, and has not bleached away. In particular, we argue that complementizerthatis referential: it refers to an element in theShared Discourse Space(an extension of the Common Ground) that can be seen as distal. This allows us to explain (i) that direct speech patterns with [−distal] (Sue said this/#that: “It is raining”) while indirect speech patterns with [+distal] (Sue said*this/that it is raining); (ii) the use ofthatin exclamatives (That bio industry is still allowed!); and (iii) that optionalthatis more frequently used when there is some sort of context between Speaker and Addressee. This last phenomenon has parallels in Romance complementizers derived from Latinquod, which can likewise be seen as [+distal]. We propose that [+distal] is a marker ofAddressee involvement, which can account for all these phenomena, and can be extended to demonstrative uses ofthat. In exophoric contexts, [+distal] additionally marksactual distance. The interpretation of Addressee involvement and actual distance depends on context; we propose that it is derived from the interaction between the syntactic DP/CP domain and the pragmatic exophoric/endophoric distinction.

Dehumanisasi ujaran kebencian dalam penggunaan kata ‘lu’ pada komentar Instagram Rachel Vennya

The purpose of this study is to determine the discursive representation of the word 'lu' in the speech written on Rachel Vennya's Instagram comments that have the potential to express hatred using the synergy of linguistic corpus methodology and to identify illocutionary speech acts using Searle's pragmatic theory. This study is a qualitative study in which researchers serve as research tools. The research data collocates with the word 'lu' processed using the Sketch Engine Tool. The hate speech corpus was compiled from Rachel Vennya's Instagram comments from 2020 to 2022. The Instagram Comments Scraper tool was used to capture these comments. The total number of utterances is 4,865, with 22,986 words. The word 'lu' appears in 88 different speech patterns in Instagram comments. The collocation analysis also reveals differences in the proclivity to utilize terms in R1 and L1. Apart from 'dakjal' vs 'setan' and 'kya' vs 'kek,' there was also a proclivity to use other words with similar meanings. One example is the colloquial R1 for the word 'anjing' in the (n+lu) pattern. Then, at 48%, directive speech acts dominated the rise of hate speech, followed by expressive speech acts at 33% and assertive speech acts at 19%.

MSA Speech Rhythm Pattern in a Multilingual Setting

This study examines variation in rhythm metrics in a multilingual setting by focusing on between-speaker differences. The investigation analyzes speech rhythm patterns of segmental durations in the speech of 77 Algerian speakers belonging to three educational background classes and three age groups. The experiment focuses on speech rhythm variability according to the level of educational background of the speakers and the language used in daily life. The gender and age of speakers are also analyzed. Results show that five vocalic rhythm metrics reflect the contrast between long and short vowels that was observed from the acoustic measurements. The statistical analysis reveals that rhythm metrics are sensitive to differences between groups of speakers, such as age and educational background. The outcomes also show that the lack of practice of Modern Standard Arabic by some speaker groups considerably affects vowel quantity.

Validating the Malaysian Mandarin paediatric speech perception (MyMaPS) test: examining age sensitivity and test-retest reliability

ABSTRACT The Malaysian Mandarin Paediatric Speech Perception (MyMaPS) test was developed to assess Mandarin-speaking children in Malaysia, a multilingual country in Southeast Asia (Lim et al., 2021). However, the digitized materials have not been validated yet among Malaysian Mandarin-speaking children. Therefore, further examinations are needed to validate the MyMaPS test. The current cross-sectional study is an extension of the Lim et al. (2021) study. In the current study, we examined the age effects and test-retest reliability of the MyMaPS test among Mandarin-speaking children (N = 136) aged 3;4–6;5 years old. Participants were grouped into four age groups (3-, 4-, 5-, 6-year-old) with equal numbers and gender distribution. Participants were assessed using the MyMaPS test which contains five subcategories (Category 1–5): Speech pattern perception (C1), Spondee perception (C2), Vowel perception (C3), Consonant perception (C4), and Tone perception (C5). The Tone perception (C5) subcategory is further divided into six subtests according to the tonal contrasts. The MyMaPS test was repeated among 20% of the participants to examine test-retest reliability. This study found significant age effects (p < .05) for all subcategories (C1 – C5) in the MyMaPS test. Generally, the 5- to 6-year-old groups performed significantly better than the 3- and 4-year-old groups, particularly in consonant perception (C4) and tone perception (C5). Intraclass correlation coefficient values (.50 – .88) suggested moderate to good test-retest reliability. The results of this study suggested that the MyMaPS test could be a suitable and reliable test for evaluating the Mandarin speech perception ability among Malaysian Chinese-speaking children.

A Comprehensive Approach for Classification of Stuttering in Children

Stuttering, a developmental speech disorder, poses significant challenges for children, impacting their fluency and interrupting the natural flow of speech. These disruptions have far-reaching consequences, particularly in communication, social interaction, and emotional well-being. Early intervention plays a crucial role in supporting optimal child development. This paper explores the potential of Machine Learning and Deep Learning techniques in the context of stuttering identification. By analyzing speech patterns and identifying specific characteristics associated with stuttering, these advanced computational methods offer valuable insights. Leveraging the power of these techniques, researchers and clinicians can enhance their understanding of stuttering, facilitate early detection, and develop effective interventions to support children affected by this speech disorder. This research paper aims to highlight the significance of applying Machine Learning and Deep Learning techniques as a promising approach for early intervention and improved outcomes in the field of stuttering identification and treatment in children. Keywords: Stuttering, Developmental Speech Disorder, Children, Telugu Language, Annotation, Stutter codes, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, SMOTE

Using artificial intelligence-enhanced video feedback for reflective practice in coach development: benefits and potential drawbacks

ABSTRACT Sports coaching has used video feedback for decades to improve athlete and coach performance. More recently, artificial intelligence (AI) and machine-learning technologies have enabled analytics alongside visual review to accelerate development further. So too in coaching conversations, software allows the implementation of behavioural analytics, tracking speech patterns, body language and facial expressions to deliver performance data measured against core coaching competencies. In this study, we interviewed 15 coaches who used AI-enhanced video review software in coaching sessions with clients over several weeks and reflected on those sessions using the recordings and AI-generated data. Our aim was to discover the benefits and drawbacks of using such an approach in reflective practice. Clear benefits emerged: insights gained from video and data analysis drove deeper reflection and heightened self-awareness; coaches focused on skills development, made specific changes to their practice, developed over time and gained in confidence. Challenges included coaches’ nervousness around using new technology, viewing and analysing their own performance, and a sense that the software does not understand the subtle nuances and context of conversations. Limitations are discussed as well as the implications for coach training, reflective practice and supervision. We suggest possibilities for further study in this area.

Structure and Types of Pashto Syllable

The syllable is the phonological element that plays a vital role in the formation of the word. A complete and standard syllable consists of the Onset, Nucleus, and Coda, but at the same time, the Onset or Coda part of the syllable can also fall down. No syllable can be constructed without Nucleus and vowel sounds. The vowel in the syllable structure has as much value as the syllable has in the word formation. These vowels play a fundamental role in the syllable’s distribution and types. This article explores the intricate structure and various types of syllables found in the Pashto language, primarily spoken in Afghanistan. Syllables play a fundamental role in linguistic analysis, as they constitute the building blocks of words and affect the rhythm, stress, and intonation patterns in speech.&#x0D; The findings of this study contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the Pashto language's syllable structure, shedding light on its unique phonological features. This knowledge holds significance for various fields, including linguistics, language teaching, and speech pathology, enabling researchers and language professionals to better analyze and comprehend the complexities of Pashto syllables.

LINGUISTIC PECULIARITIES OF THE FEMALE CHARACTER ARCHETYPES IN CONTEMPORARY CINEMA DISCOURSE BASED ON THE TV SERIES "WHY WOMEN KILL"

The research focuses on the linguistic characteristics of the female characters' speech in the contemporary British television series Why Women Kill and the peculiarities of creating psycholinguistic images of female characters in accordance with the corresponding film archetypes. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that it attempts to analyze the psycholinguistic images of female characters in television series, and thus determines the originality and significance of this study. This research contributes to the enlargement of works dedicated to cinematography characters' language peculiarities revealing the correlation with a particular psychological archetype that presents the topicality of our research. The script is viewed as one of the primary universal methods for unveiling the character's image in an audiovisual text. Based on theories of character archetypes and the use of language in the media, this article examines the replicas and speech patterns of three prominent female characters to determine the linguistic choices used to convey character archetypes. The research is based on the script from the series Why Women Kill (2019) by M. Cherry. The descriptive method, contextual analysis, and method of quantitative calculations have been the appropriate methodological instruments for achieving the purpose of the study. W. Schmidt's (2007) classification serves as the basis for determining the primary psychological characteristics of the characters. The article examines the formation of psycholinguistic images of three female characters from the film archetypes The Nurturer, The Seductive Muse, and The Amazon. Beth Ann Stanton belongs to the film archetype The Nurturer, Simone Grove belongs to the film archetype The Seductive Muse, and Taylor Harding belongs to the film archetype The Amazon, as determined by W. Schmidt's analysis of the peculiarities of the characters' speech and his study of the implication of film archetypes. Beth Anne Stanton's adherence to The Nurturer film archetype is characterized by the high frequency of implications of formal language vocabulary, appellatives, and second-person singular pronouns, as societal recognition of The Nurturer film archetype is crucial. The defining linguistic characteristics of Simone Grove as The Seductive Muse film archetype are the use of hyperbole, the high frequency of first-person singular and second-person pronouns, and the repeated use of interjections, as The Seductive Muse film archetype is characterized by the constant attention of the audience and the demonstration of the importance of her own personality and other characters. Taylor Harding as The Amazon film archetype is characterized by the use of sarcasm, irony, and speech marked by assertiveness and vulgarity, as the Amazon film archetype is always ready to defend its point of view and professionalism, sometimes aggressively, in order to assert dominance.

Biometric Authentication System

Abstract: Biometric authentication systems have gained significant interest due to their reliable and practical authentication options. These systems utilize physiological or behavioral traits, like fingerprints, face recognition, and speech patterns, to confirm a person's identity. They offer advantages such as increased security and user convenience compared to traditional methods. However, biometric authentication also poses challenges, including privacy concerns and the potential for false positives or negatives. This research study provides a comprehensive overview of the various forms, applications, benefits, and limitations of biometric authentication systems. It emphasizes the need to address privacy concerns and establish appropriate standards and regulations. The findings inform practitioners, researchers, and policymakers about the latest advancements and implications of biometric authentication systems.

Exploring the Intricacies of Human Character: A Cutting-Edge Platform for Personality Detection

Abstract: This research introduces a platform for personality detection that leverages artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) principles. By employing facial recognition, eye detection, body language analysis, speech recognition, and heart rate detection, the platform aims to accurately discern and analyse an individual's personality traits. The platform analyses various cues emitted by an individual, including facial expressions, micro expressions, eye movements, postures, gestures, speech patterns, and heart rate fluctuations. Through the integration of these AI and ML techniques, the platform offers comprehensive insights into an individual's emotional state, communication style, and personality characteristics. This technology has promising applications in personalized marketing, customer analysis, mental health assessment, and team dynamics optimization. By harnessing the power of AI and ML, this platform has the potential to revolutionise industries and pave the way for tailored experiences and enhanced human interactions. Preface: This research endeavours to present a ground-breaking idea for copyright protection. Recognizing the importance of safeguarding intellectual property in the digital age, this study emphasizes the need for a comprehensive and robust approach to copyright enforcement. To realise the practical implementation of this idea, a well-developed research team with expertise in technology, law, and digital rights is essential. Furthermore, successful integration and collaboration with renowned IT companies are vital to harness their resources, technical capabilities, and industry influence. By bringing together the collective knowledge and expertise of such a team and leveraging the support of renowned IT companies, this research aims to pave the way for a more effective and efficient copyright protection framework that ensures the rights of creators and innovators in the modern digital landscape.

East Nusa Tenggara (NTT) Student Communication Accommodation Strategy in Sidoarjo

This qualitative study aims to explore the accommodation strategies employed by students from East Nusa Tenggara (NTT) studying in Sidoarjo, Indonesia, in their interactions with local students and the surrounding community. Drawing on the communication accommodation theory, data was collected through purposive sampling using interviews, observations, and documentation. The findings revealed three forms of communication accommodation: convergence (using both Indonesian and Javanese languages during interactions), divergence (using their native language from NTT), and overaccommodation (expressed through loud laughter and speech patterns). The study highlights the significance of the accommodation process between NTT students and local students and community members in achieving effective cross-cultural communication. The implications of these findings shed light on the importance of cultural sensitivity and understanding in fostering harmonious interactions among diverse populations.&#x0D; Highlights:&#x0D; &#x0D; The study explores cross-cultural accommodation strategies of NTT students in Sidoarjo.&#x0D; Findings reveal convergence, divergence, and overaccommodation as forms of communication accommodation.&#x0D; The study emphasizes the importance of cultural sensitivity for effective cross-cultural communication.&#x0D; &#x0D; Keywords: cross-cultural accommodation, NTT students, communication accommodation, cultural sensitivity, effective communication

East Nusa Tenggara (NTT) Student Communication Accommodation Strategy in Sidoarjo

This qualitative study aims to explore the accommodation strategies employed by students from East Nusa Tenggara (NTT) studying in Sidoarjo, Indonesia, in their interactions with local students and the surrounding community. Drawing on the communication accommodation theory, data was collected through purposive sampling using interviews, observations, and documentation. The findings revealed three forms of communication accommodation: convergence (using both Indonesian and Javanese languages during interactions), divergence (using their native language from NTT), and overaccommodation (expressed through loud laughter and speech patterns). The study highlights the significance of the accommodation process between NTT students and local students and community members in achieving effective cross-cultural communication. The implications of these findings shed light on the importance of cultural sensitivity and understanding in fostering harmonious interactions among diverse populations.&#x0D; Highlights:&#x0D; &#x0D; The study explores cross-cultural accommodation strategies of NTT students in Sidoarjo.&#x0D; Findings reveal convergence, divergence, and overaccommodation as forms of communication accommodation.&#x0D; The study emphasizes the importance of cultural sensitivity for effective cross-cultural communication.&#x0D; &#x0D; Keywords: cross-cultural accommodation, NTT students, communication accommodation, cultural sensitivity, effective communication

How well-intentioned white male physicists maintain ignorance of inequity and justify inaction

BackgroundWe present an analysis of interviews with 27 self-identified progressive white-male physics faculty and graduate students discussing race and gender in physics. White cis men dominate most STEM fields and are particularly overrepresented in positions of status and influence (i.e., full professors, chairs, deans, etc.), positioning them as a potentially powerful demographic for enacting systemic reform. Despite their proclaimed outrage at and interest in addressing inequity, they frequently engage in patterns of belief, speech and (in)action that ultimately support the status quo of white male privilege in opposition to their intentions.ResultsThe white male physicists we interviewed used numerous discourses which support racist and sexist norms and position them as powerless to disrupt their own privilege. We present and discuss three overarching themes, seen in our data, demonstrating how highly educated, well-intentioned people of privilege maintain their power and privilege despite their own intentions: (1) denying inequity is physically near them; (2) locating causes of inequity in large societal systems over which they have little influence; and (3) justifying inaction.ConclusionsDespite being progressively minded and highly educated, these men are frequently complicit in racism and sexism. We end with recommendations for helping cis men engage the power they hold to better work with marginalized people to disrupt inequity.

Assamese Dialect Identification System using Convolution Neural Networks

Labeling speech in an audio file with appropriate dialect labels is the aim of a dialect identification system. This paper presents a method of using convolution neural networks (CNN) to identify four Assamese dialects: Goalporia dialect, Kamrupi dialect, Eastern Assamese dialect, and Central Assamese dialect. This study employed the speech patterns of four major Assamese regional dialects: the Central Dialects spoken in and around the district of Nagaon; the Eastern Assamese dialect spoken in the districts of Sibsagar and its neighboring areas; the Kamrupi dialect spoken in the districts of Kamrup, Nalbari, Barpeta, Kokarajhar, and some areas of Bongaigaon; and the Goaplari dialect spoken in the Goaplara, Dhuburi, and a portion of Bongaigaon district. Over the course of two hours, audio samples from each of the four dialects were used to train the classifier. Mel spectrogram pictures, which are produced from two to four second divisions of raw audio input with varying audio quality, are used by the CNN. The system's performance is also analyzed in relation to the lengths of the train and test audio samples. The proposed CNN model achieves an accuracy of 90.82 percent, which may be the best when compared to machine learning models.

Tutur Kata Penonton Piala Dunia 2022

2022 World Cup international event. Furthermore, the context of the audience's speech while watching together provides an overview of how Indonesian people express themselves through speech when watching World Cup matches. The purpose of this study is to explore the forms of speech acts by the public during collective World Cup viewing. The research was conducted in the city of Kolaka, Southeast Sulawesi, using qualitative research methods. Data collection techniques included observation, recording, note-taking, and interviews. Based on the described research results, the identified forms of speech acts tend to be expressive and emotional. Declarative speech acts accounted for 6 instances, imperative speech acts for 4 instances, and interrogative speech acts for 4 instances. The audience's speech patterns were influenced by factors such as the atmosphere, gender, and age. The study findings illustrate the dynamic nature of the audience's response, as the unpredictable World Cup matches often exceeded the audience's expectations. Consequently, people's words when watching the 2022 World Cup together could change depending on the ongoing match situation and conditions. Emotions such as joy, disappointment, sadness, annoyance, and disbelief were common expressions witnessed during these matches.

A Pragma-Dialectical Study as a Directive Speech Act Pattern of a Lecturer to the Students in an Online Learning

This study aims to describe the patterns of directive speech acts of lecturers and students in online learning of Scientific Work courses. This research is a pragma-dialectical study using descriptive qualitative method. The research data are the utterances of lecturers and students of the Early Childhood Educator Teacher Education Study Program (PG-PAUD) of the Distance University in Borneo, Indonesia. All speakers are female with the age range of 25-40 years. Data were obtained from the online learning process using the Microsoft Teams in four webinar tutorial meetings. The data were collected using techniques of listening, note-taking, recording and screenshot. The results of the study found six patterns of directive speech acts contained in four critical discussions, namely requests, orders, questions, prohibitions, and persuasions, as well as invitations. The form of directive speech act patterns found is the most dominant pattern in speech. This form of speech pattern is widely used by speakers (lecturers) and speech partners (students) with the aim of testing students’ understanding or reminding students.

A-05 Clinical Considerations for the Management of Post-Concussion Psychogenic Speech Impairments

Abstract The purpose of this case study was to present clinical approaches for psychogenic speech impairments following concussion. Methods Retrospective chart review of a 17-year-old Black male (Patient 1) who sustained a sport-related concussion and a 46-year-old Hispanic female (Patient 2) who sustained a concussion following a motor vehicle accident and exhibited dysfluencies after injury. Both completed a clinical interview, symptom, neurocognitive, vestibular-ocular motor, and mood assessments at each clinical visit. Clinical impressions and management decisions were discussed with treating neuropsychologists. Results At intake, neither patient was attending school/work. Both endorsed significant state anxiety, mild depression, and processing speed impairment. Patient 1 reported dysfluency ~2 hours post-injury, characterized as rapid repetition of sounds followed by full words, which increased under stress. The clinical evaluation required extra time and included psychoeducation regarding atypical speech patterns and stress management. Patient 1 was encouraged to resume school, non-contact cheerleading, and counseling sessions. Speech dysfluencies resolved at 24 days post-injury without speech intervention. Patient 2 reported dysfluency at 32 days post-injury after witnessing an MVA which provoked isolated aphasia followed by a consistent psychogenic speech pattern. Dysfluency was triggered by light/noise sensitivity and some parts of the clinical evaluation were not tolerated following exposure. Vestibular therapy increased dysfluency and was replaced with speech therapy and numerous medication trials (SSRIs, beta-blockers, benzodiazepines) without success. The patient returned to work after 9 months and did not fully resolve speech abnormalities. Conclusions Speech abnormalities following concussion are variable and require the clinician to be flexible with the evaluation and treatment plan.

Articulatory speech measures can be related to the severity of multiple sclerosis.

Dysarthria is one of the most frequent communication disorders in patients with Multiple Sclerosis (MS), with an estimated prevalence of around 50%. However, it is unclear if there is a relationship between dysarthria and the severity or duration of the disease. Describe the speech pattern in MS, correlate with clinical data, and compare with controls. A group of MS patients (n = 73) matched to healthy controls (n = 37) by sex and age. Individuals with neurological and/or systemic conditions that could interfere with speech were excluded. MS group clinical data were obtained through the analysis of medical records. The speech assessment consisted of auditory-perceptual and speech acoustic analysis, from recording the following speech tasks: phonation and breathing (sustained vowel/a/); prosody (sentences with different intonation patterns) and articulation (diadochokinesis; spontaneous speech; diphthong/iu/repeatedly). In MS, 72.6% of the individuals presented mild dysarthria, with alterations in speech subsystems: phonation, breathing, resonance, and articulation. In the acoustic analysis, individuals with MS were significantly worse than the control group (CG) in the variables: standard deviation of the fundamental frequency (p = 0.001) and maximum phonation time (p = 0.041). In diadochokinesis, individuals with MS had a lower number of syllables, duration, and phonation time, but larger pauses per seconds, and in spontaneous speech, a high number of pauses were evidenced as compared to CG. Correlations were found between phonation time in spontaneous speech and the Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) (r = - 0.238, p = 0.043) and phonation ratio in spontaneous speech and EDSS (r = -0.265, p = 0.023), which indicates a correlation between the number of pauses during spontaneous speech and the severity of the disease. The speech profile in MS patients was mild dysarthria, with a decline in the phonatory, respiratory, resonant, and articulatory subsystems of speech, respectively, in order of prevalence. The increased number of pauses during speech and lower rates of phonation ratio can reflect the severity of MS.