Speech Domain Research Articles

Disruption of speech motor adaptation with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the articulatory representation in primary motor cortex

When auditory feedback perturbation is introduced in a predictable way over a number of utterances, speakers learn to compensate by adjusting their own productions, a process known as sensorimotor adaptation. Despite multiple lines of evidence indicating the role of primary motor cortex (M1) in motor learning and memory, whether M1 causally contributes to sensorimotor adaptation in the speech domain remains unclear. Here, we aimed to assay whether temporary disruption of the articulatory representation in left M1 by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) impairs speech adaptation. To induce sensorimotor adaptation, the frequencies of first formants (F1) were shifted up and played back to participants when they produced “head”, “bed”, and “dead” repeatedly (the learning phase). A low-frequency rTMS train (.6 Hz, subthreshold, 12 min) over either the tongue or the hand representation of M1 (between-subjects design) was applied before participants experienced altered auditory feedback in the learning phase. We found that the group who received rTMS over the hand representation showed the expected compensatory response for the upwards shift in F1 by significantly reducing F1 and increasing the second formant (F2) frequencies in their productions. In contrast, these expected compensatory changes in both F1 and F2 did not occur in the group that received rTMS over the tongue representation. Critically, rTMS (subthreshold) over the tongue representation did not affect vowel production, which was unchanged from baseline. These results provide direct evidence that the articulatory representation in left M1 causally contributes to sensorimotor learning in speech. Furthermore, these results also suggest that M1 is critical to the network supporting a more global adaptation that aims to move the altered speech production closer to a learnt pattern of speech production used to produce another vowel.

The CO2 waveguide laser with flexible fiber in transoral resection of oral and oropharyngeal cancers: a retrospective cohort study on postoperative and quality of life outcomes.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the CO2 waveguide laser (WG CO2 laser) with flexible fiber (Lumenis Ltd., Yokneam, Israel) in the treatment of oral and oropharyngeal cancers, specifically focusing on postoperative outcomes, pain, and quality of life (QoL). Eighty-one patients, 43 women and 38 men, with oral or oropharyngeal cancer who consecutively underwent transoral resection by WG CO2 laser from August 2015 to April 2020 were retrospectively enrolled. Resections were performed in super pulsed mode with a power setting ranging between 3 and 10W. Data about frozen sections, reconstruction, complication rate, length of hospital stay, tracheostomy rate and time to decannulation, nasogastric feeding tube rate and time to oral feeding, pain, and QoL were reviewed. Continuous variables were presented as mean and standard deviation. Concordance between intraoperative frozen section examination and definitive histology was calculated using Cohen's K test of agreement. The mean length of hospital stay was 13days. The feeding tube rate was 81%; the tracheostomy rate was 35%; the feeding tube was left in place for 8days on average, and the time to decannulation was 9days. The only complication was a postoperative bleeding in 4 patients. The median postoperative pain score measured by the Numeric Pain Rating Scale on postoperative days 1, 3, and 5 was 0 and there was a constant decrease in painkiller use over the days. The overall mean composite QoL score was 77 ± 14, with excellent results in saliva, taste, pain, and speech domains. Frozen section evaluation had a specificity of 99% and a negative predictive value of 98%. WG CO2 laser is a good and safe tool for transoral tailored resection of oral and oropharyngeal cancers. It ensures a good overall QoL and guarantees fast recovery and a very low postoperative pain.

The extended present: an informational context for perception

Several previous authors have proposed a kind of specious or subjective present moment that covers a few seconds of recent information. This article proposes a new hypothesis about the subjective present, renamed the extended present, defined not in terms of time covered but as a thematically connected information structure held in working memory and in transiently accessible form in long-term memory. The three key features of the extended present are that information in it is thematically connected, both internally and to current attended perceptual input, it is organised in a hierarchical structure, and all information in it is marked with temporal information, specifically ordinal and duration information. Temporal boundaries to the information structure are determined by hierarchical structure processing and by limits on processing and storage capacity. Supporting evidence for the importance of hierarchical structure analysis is found in the domains of music perception, speech and language processing, perception and production of goal-directed action, and exact arithmetical calculation. Temporal information marking is also discussed and a possible mechanism for representing ordinal and duration information on the time scale of the extended present is proposed. It is hypothesised that the extended present functions primarily as an informational context for making sense of current perceptual input, and as an enabler for perception and generation of complex structures and operations in language, action, music, exact calculation, and other domains.

Extraction of Voiced Regions of Speech from Emotional Speech Signals Using Wavelet-Pitch Method

Extraction of voiced regions of speech is one of the latest topics in speech domain for various speech applications. Emotional speech signals contain most of the information in voiced regions of speech. In this particular work, voiced regions of speech are extracted from emotional speech signals using wavelet-pitch method. Daubechies wavelet (Db4) is applied on the speech frames after downsampling the speech signals. Autocorrelation function is performed on the extracted approximation coefficients of each speech frame and corresponding pitch values are obtained. A local threshold is defined on obtained pitch values to extract voiced regions. The threshold values are different for male and female speakers, as male pitch values are low compared to the female pitch values in general. The obtained pitch values are scaled down and are compared with the thresholds to extract the voiced frames. The transition frames between the voiced and unvoiced frames are also extracted if the previous frame is voiced frame, to preserve the emotional content in extracted frames. The extracted frames are reshaped to have desired emotional speech signal. Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), Normalized Root Mean Square Error (NRMSE) and statistical parameters are used as evaluation metrics. This particular work provides better SNR and Normalized Root Mean Square Error values compared to the zero crossing-energy and residual signal based methods in voiced region extraction. Db4 wavelet provides better results compared to Haar and Db2 wavelets in extracting voiced regions using wavelet-pitch method from emotional speech signals.

Disease Related Morbidity and Quality of Life Impairment in Patients with Single Sided Deafness.

Patients with single sided-deafness (SSD) have hearing deficits amounting to a handicap to their everyday quality of life and are likely to suffer serious social challenges. There is a significant gap in the "disability" aspect of SSD in literature. The study was undertaken to compare the quality of life of SSD patients in various domains with normal hearing individuals. 51 patients of SSD with pure sensorineural hearing loss with impaired ear having a pure tone average of more than or equal to 70dB was compared with 50 subjects with normal hearing sensitivity. Pure tone audiometric testing and the english version of Speech, Spatial and Qualities of Hearing Scale (SSQ) were used to enumerate subjective advantage. Total average SSQ score across domains in patients (6.6 ± 1.2) was significantly poorer in comparison to the control group (8.4 ± 0.9). Based on SSQ, patients with SSD experience hearing disability in comparison to the control group (p < 0.01). The ratings of all the items in the SSQ subdomains were higher in the reference group than in the patient group. Individuals with single sided-deafness experience significant auditory disability in all the three domains of speech, spatial & qualities of hearing. Therefore, these patients should be strongly counselled for currently available treatment options.

Effects of Verb Network Strengthening Treatment on Sound-Level and Speech Production Errors in Individuals With Aphasia and Acquired Apraxia of Speech.

Purpose This retrospective pilot study investigated whether sound-level and speech production errors decreased in confrontation naming following Verb Network Strengthening Treatment (VNeST) for four participants with acquired apraxia of speech (A-AOS) and aphasia for whom lexical retrieval was previously reported. Specifically, we investigated a potential increase in correct number of syllables per word and posttreatment changes across three domains of speech: segmental production, fluency, and prosody. It was hypothesized that treatment shown to increase lexical retrieval in persons with aphasia and A-AOS could potentially facilitate a reduction in sound-level and speech production errors consistent with dual diagnoses of A-AOS and aphasia. Method Naming responses from four participants with aphasia and A-AOS who previously participated in VNeST studies were investigated for correct number of syllables per word and measures of segmental speech, fluency, and prosody. Results Significant gains in at least one measure of speech production were reported for three of the participants. One participant demonstrated decreased segmental speech errors, two showed significant reduction on syllable segmentation, and two demonstrated a significant reduction on false starts and pauses. Significant gains in production of correct number of syllables were limited to one participant, and one participant did not demonstrate increased accuracy on any measure of speech production. Conclusions While speech production errors consistent with motor speech impairment cannot always be definitively distinguished from the confound of aphasia, two participants produced significantly decreased segmentation of syllables, a characteristic unique to A-AOS. The sound-level and speech production changes recorded may be attributed to a combination of interacting motor and language processes and resource allocation. In addition, specific components of VNeST may have contributed to speech production changes. Future work will focus on a prospective study of effects of language therapy (e.g., VNeST) on measures of speech production with investigation beyond the single-word level.

Characterization of Speech and Language Phenotype in GLUT1DS

Background: To analyze the oral motor, speech and language phenotype in a sample of pediatric patients with GLUT 1 transporter deficiency syndrome (GLUT1DS). Methods: eight Italian-speaking children with GLUT1DS (aged 4.6–15.4 years) in stable treatment with ketogenic diet from a variable time underwent a specific and standardized speech and language assessment battery. Results: All patients showed deficits with different degrees of impairment in multiple speech and language areas. In particular, orofacial praxis, parallel and total movements were the most impaired in the oromotor domain; in the speech domain patients obtained a poor performance in the diadochokinesis rate and in the repetition of words that resulted as severely deficient in seven out of eight patients; in the language domain the most affected abilities were semantic/phonological fluency and receptive grammar. Conclusions: GLUT1DS is associated to different levels of speech and language impairment, which should guide diagnostic and therapeutic intervention. Larger population data are needed to identify more precisely a speech and language profile in GLUT1DS patients.

In spite of successful curative surgery for buccal mucosa carcinoma the health-related quality-of-life continues to remain poor.

In early stage buccal mucosa carcinoma, in spite of successful curative surgery, the health-related quality-of-life (HRQoL) may not improve. We aimed to study HRQoL in these patients who had undergone successful curative surgery and determined factors that influence the HRQoL. Subjects, aged 18-70years, who had undergone successful curative surgery for stage I and II buccal mucosa cancer, were assessed for HRQoL using the University of Washington Quality of Life Questionnaire and factors affecting HRQoL were determined. Their scores were compared with normative reference scores. 54 patients (stages I 54%, II 46%) aged 44 ± 11years (87% males) were studied. They had undergone curative surgery a median of 8.5 (IQR 4-13.5) months ago. Their mean global HRQoL score was 77 ± 30, with significantly poorer scores compared to reference in domains of appearance, activity, swallowing, chewing, speech, shoulder, saliva, mood and anxiety. Anxiety, activity, and chewing were considered the most important domains by the patients. Among the factors influencing HRQoL, duration since surgery was the most important factor, and patients with recent surgery had worse performance in chewing, saliva and mood. Patients with stage II had worse performance in shoulder and anxiety compared to stage I. Post-operative radiotherapy worsened swallowing and shoulder function. In spite of successful curative surgery for buccal mucosa carcinoma, the HRQoL continues to remain sub-optimal with poor scores in most of the domains. These domains must be focused on with appropriate measures in order to improve overall HRQoL in patients after successful curative surgery.

A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Speaking Dyspnea.

Purpose A conceptual framework is proposed to better understand the experience of people who have dyspnea (breathing discomfort) when speaking: its nature, its physiological mechanisms, and its impacts on their lives. Method The components of the framework are presented in their natural order. They are a Speaking Domain (Speaking Activities and Speaking Variables), a Physiological Domain (Speech Breathing Variables and Physiological Mechanisms), a Perceptual Domain (Dyspnea), a Symptom Impact Domain (Emotional Responses, Immediate Behavioral Responses, and Long-Term Behavioral Response), and a Life Impact Domain (Short-Term Impacts and Long-Term Impacts). Results We discuss literature that most directly supports these components and includes findings from healthy people and those with disorders in whom speaking dyspnea was either evoked or measured. Caveats are noted where information is limited and further study is needed. A case example is provided to illustrate how to apply the framework. Conclusions This framework provides a broader view of the elements that contribute to the experience of speaking dyspnea. It is meant to guide researchers, clinicians, instructors, caregivers, and those for whom speaking dyspnea is a daily or even a life-long challenge.

Smart Emotion Recognition Framework: A Secured IoVT Perspective

The promise of automated-driving cars causes the automotive and consumer electronics (CE) sector to rethink not only what it means to drive, but also the relationship between the car and the consumer. Recent trend in Internet of Vehicle Things (IoVT) promotes robust interactions between humans and vehicles, which ultimately points to enhance human abilities, such as hearing, visual surveillance, or emotion awareness, as a part of safety concern. The voice-based interactions (speech recognition and stress monitoring) will improve in-time awareness of the vehicle status. Unfortunately, the existing modulation domain speech enhancement techniques achieve low satisfactory performance in detecting humans’ stress emotions where the environmental noise is inevitable and varies with the location of every passing vehicle. Furthermore, the computational load introduces challenges in their implementation in automated vehicles. In this direction, we propose a front-end processing framework, in particular to stress emotion detection cases (such as anger, sad, fear, and happy) in different nonstationary noisy environments, such as car, airport, traffic, and train. This article encompasses three interrelated issues: 1) analysis, modification, and synthesis of noisy speech emotion in modulation domain in real-time background noise, 2) extracting set of Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients features from noisy speech stimuli for speech emotion recognition, and 3) evaluation of overall system performance by means of objective parameters, and confusion matrix in adverse environments using speech emotion database Interactive Emotional Dyadic Motion Capture. The experimental results show that favorable performance in state-of-the-art stress monitoring yields high levels of consumer satisfaction for security in vehicle comparison to traditional frameworks.

Intellectual abilities, language comprehension, speech, and motor function in children with spinal muscular atrophy type 1

BackgroundSpinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a chronic, neuromuscular disease characterized by degeneration of spinal cord motor neurons, resulting in progressive muscular atrophy and weakness. SMA1 is the most severe form characterized by significant bulbar, respiratory, and motor dysfunction. SMA1 prevents children from speaking a clearly understandable and fluent language, with their communication being mainly characterized by eye movements, guttural sounds, and anarthria (type 1a); severe dysarthria (type 1b); and nasal voice and dyslalia (type 1c).The aim of this study was to analyze for the first time cognitive functions, language comprehension, and speech in natural history SMA1 children according to age and subtypes, to develop cognitive and language benchmarks that provide outcomes for the clinical medication trials that are changing SMA1 course/trajectory.MethodsThis is a retrospective study including 22 children with SMA1 (10 affected by subtype 1a-1b: AB and 12 by 1c: C) aged 3–11 years in clinical stable condition with a coded way to communicate “yes” and “no”. Data from the following assessments have been retrieved from patient charts: one-dimensional Raven test (RCPM), to evaluate cognitive development (IQ); ALS Severity Score (ALSSS) to evaluate speech disturbances; Brown Bellugy modified for Italian standards (TCGB) to evaluate language comprehension; and Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Infant Test of Neuromuscular Disorders (CHOP-INTEND) to assess motor functioning.ResultsSMA 1AB and 1C children were similar in age, with the former characterized by lower CHOP-INTEND scores compared to the latter. All 22 children had collaborated to RCPM and their median IQ was 120 with no difference (p = 0.945) between AB and C. Global median score of the speech domain of the ALSSS was 5; however, it was 2 in AB children, being significantly lower than C (6.5, p < 0.001).TCGB test had been completed by 13 children, with morphosyntactic comprehension being in the normal range (50). Although ALSSS did not correlate with both IQ and TCGB, it had a strong (p < 0.001) correlation with CHOP-INTEND described by an exponential rise to maximum.ConclusionsAlthough speech and motor function were severely compromised, children with SMA1 showed general intelligence and language comprehension in the normal range. Speech impairment was strictly related to global motor impairment.

Neural Substrates of Aphasia in Acute Left Hemispheric Stroke Using Voxel-Based Lesion-symptom Brain Mapping.

It is unclear how these brain lesions fit into the language processing in acute stroke. In this study, we aimed to investigate the neuroanatomical lesion related to language processing in acute stage of stroke patients using voxel-based lesion-symptom mapping (VLSM). 73 acute first-ever post-stroke patients were enrolled in this retrospective study, who had undertaken brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and Korean version of the Western Aphasia Test within 1 month from onset. Each voxel was compared with aphasia quotient and subtest scores as dependent variables using VLSM. The aphasia group showed significantly much more involvement of extra-nuclear area, insula, inferior frontal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus compared to non-aphasia group. The deficit of spontaneous speech domain was associated with the inferior parietal lobule, inferior and middle frontal gyrus and insula. The insular cortex, inferior parietal lobule, inferior frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus and superior temporal gyrus were related to deficit of comprehension. The inferior parietal lobule, insula, precentral gyrus, inferior frontal gyrus were related to the deficit of repetition. The deficit of naming was related to inferior parietal lobule, insula and inferior frontal gyrus. In conclusion, VLSM from early MRI imaging study after stroke may be useful to understand the language process network and establish early rehabilitation strategies after stroke.

Many-to-Many Unsupervised Speech Conversion From Nonparallel Corpora

We address a nonparallel data-driven many-to-many speech modeling and multimodal style conversion method. In this work, we train a speech conversion model for multiple domains rather than a specific source and target domain pair, and we generate diverse output speech signals from a given source domain speech by transferring some speech style-related characteristics while preserving its linguistic content information. The proposed method comprises a variational autoencoder (VAE)-based many-to-many speech conversion network with a Wasserstein generative adversarial network (WGAN) and a skip-connected autoencoder-based self-supervised learning network. The proposed conversion network trains the models by decomposing the spectral features of the input speech signal into a content factor that represents domain-invariant information and a style factor that represents domain-related information to automatically estimate the various speech styles of each domain, and the network converts the input speech signal to another domain using the computed content factor with the target style factor we want to change. Diverse and multimodal outputs can be generated by sampling different style factors. We also train models in a stable manner and improve the quality of generated outputs by sharing the discriminator of the VAE-based speech conversion network and that of the self-supervised learning network. We apply the proposed method to speaker conversion and perform the perceptual evaluations. Experimental results revealed that the proposed method obtained high accuracy of converted spectra, significantly improved the sound quality and speaker similarity of the converted speech, and contributed to stable model training.

Source domains of political metaphorin presidential speech

Source domains of political metaphorin presidential speech

A Journey Towards 1st Step of Life – A Case Report on Vision Therapy for A Patient with Global Developmental Delay and Nystagmus

Introduction: Children with Global Developmental Delay (GDD) fail to achieve developmental milestones expected for their age range as compared to their peers. They typically have visual problems in addition to poor gross and fine motor skills. Developmental delays extend to speech, language, cognition, and personal-social domains, and impact activities of daily living. Case Summary: A 4-year-old child presented with chief concerns from his parents that he had difficulty making eye contact was unable to stand and walk. He was not making adequate progress in physiotherapy. Neuro-developmental assessment resulted in a diagnosis of GDD. Visual Evoked Potential showed decreased visual acuity, and nystagmus. Comprehensive examination showed that the patient had a face tilt and head turn. Spectacle lenses with prism was prescribed. A therapy treatment plan was recommended and it was divided into three phases, with the primary goal of improving visual functions through vision therapy. At the end of the therapy, the child developed the confidence to stand and walk without any support. Conclusion: This case report demonstrates the importance of vision therapy in improving the patient’s overall visual performance. In particular, it demonstrates the role of visual intervention in aiding motor skills to the extent that standing and walking was enabled without the need for additional support.

Rasch Analysis of Patient- and Parent-Reported Outcome Measures in the International Consortium for Health Outcomes Measurement Standard Set for Cleft Lip and Palate

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to evaluate the psychometric performance of the patient- and parent-reported measures in the International Consortium for Health Outcomes Measurement (ICHOM) Standard Set for Cleft Care, and to identify ways of improving concept coverage. MethodsData from 714 patients with cleft lip and/or palate, aged 8 to 9, 10 to 12.5, and 22 years were collected between November 2015 and April 2019 at Erasmus University Medical Center, Boston Children’s Hospital, Duke Children’s Hospital, and from participating sites in the CLEFT-Q Phase 3 study. The Standard Set includes 9 CLEFT-Q scales, the Nasal Obstruction Symptom Evaluation (NOSE) questionnaire, the Child Oral Health Impact Profile–Oral Symptoms Scale (COHIP-OSS), and the Intelligibility in Context Scale (ICS). Targeting, item-fit statistics, thresholds for item responses, and measurement precision (PSI) were analyzed using Rasch measurement theory. ResultsThe proportion of the sample to score within each instruments range of measurement varied from 69% (ICS) to 92% (CLEFT-Q teeth and COHIP-OSS). Specific problems with individual items within the NOSE and COHIP-OSS questionnaires were noted, such as poor item fit to the Rasch model and disordered thresholds (6 of 10). Reliability measured with PSI was above 0.82 for the ICS and all but one CLEFT-Q scale (speech distress). PSIs were lowest for the COHIP-OSS (0.43) and NOSE questionnaire (0.35). ConclusionThe patient- and parent-reported components within the facial appearance, psychosocial function, and speech domains are valid measures; however, the facial function and oral health domains are not sufficiently covered by the CLEFT-Q eating and drinking, NOSE, and COHIP-OSS, and these questionnaires may not be accurate enough to stratify cleft-related outcomes.

Sound acts: towards a sonic pragmatism

ABSTRACT The article makes a case for a pragmatist approach to sound studies. My starting point is the ostensible lack of language for analysing the agentic, creative and expressive aspects of sound outside of domains of speech and music. At the same time, recent aesthetic and technological developments have brought about a plethora of sound practices that defy the apparatuses of musicology and linguistic as much as they do the listening-centred perspectives of sound studies. Discussing six examples of such practices taken from interactive sound art and participatory online cultures, I sketch out possible directions for a sonic pragmatism. In the first part, I put forward three possible premises for such a theory: John Dewey’s aesthetics, G.H. Mead’s ontology of acts, and actor-network theory. In the second part, I discuss three potential categories for the analysis of sound acts – affordance, perspective, and gesture – emphasising, respectively, their material, social, and pragmatic aspects. I argue that a pragmatist epistemology can offer substantial insights into both philosophical and cultural aspects of contemporary soundmaking, suspending the familiar dichotomies of perception and production, subject and object, human and nonhuman.

Visual Speech Recognition with Lightweight Psychologically Motivated Gabor Features.

Extraction of relevant lip features is of continuing interest in the visual speech domain. Using end-to-end feature extraction can produce good results, but at the cost of the results being difficult for humans to comprehend and relate to. We present a new, lightweight feature extraction approach, motivated by human-centric glimpse-based psychological research into facial barcodes, and demonstrate that these simple, easy to extract 3D geometric features (produced using Gabor-based image patches), can successfully be used for speech recognition with LSTM-based machine learning. This approach can successfully extract low dimensionality lip parameters with a minimum of processing. One key difference between using these Gabor-based features and using other features such as traditional DCT, or the current fashion for CNN features is that these are human-centric features that can be visualised and analysed by humans. This means that it is easier to explain and visualise the results. They can also be used for reliable speech recognition, as demonstrated using the Grid corpus. Results for overlapping speakers using our lightweight system gave a recognition rate of over 82%, which compares well to less explainable features in the literature.

Clinical utility of transcranial direct current stimulation and online language training in semantic dementia

AbstractBackgroundSemantic dementia (SD) is a variant of primary progressive aphasia (PPA) which is characterised by impaired confrontation naming, single word comprehension and object recognition with preserved fluency and syntax. Similar to many other neurodegenerative dementias, there is currently no effective treatment for semantic dementia. Neuromodulatory interventions like transcranial direct current stimulation(tDCS) and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation(rTMS) along with language training is emerging as a potential treatment strategy for Primary progressive aphasia. Aim: Four patients with semantic dementia were administered concomitant online language training with tDCS to study the feasibility and clinical outcome.MethodFour patients (2 males) aged between 50‐63 years, diagnosed with semantic dementia after a comprehensive clinical assessment and Addenbrooke’s cognitive examination and Clinical Dementia Rating(CDR) scale by an experienced geriatric Psychiatrist were included in the case series. Detailed assessment of neurolinguistic skills was done using Western Aphasia Battery (WAB‐Kannada/Hindi) before and after 5‐days of tDCS by qualified speech pathologist. Daily tDCS sessions were delivered using 2mA current with anode over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and cathode over right supraorbital area for 30 minutes, except one female patient with moderate dementia who received 2 session daily at an interval of 3 hours. Online cognitive‐linguistic intervention was provided by the speech pathologist during tDCS sessions. Adverse effects were monitored using structured questionnaire.ResultThree Patients had mild dementia and one had moderate dementia as per CDR. tDCS was tolerated well except for burning sensation in two sessions in one patient and all were able to attend the linguistic training. All subjects improved in the domains of Spontaneous speech, Auditory verbal comprehension, repetition and naming on the WAB.ConclusiontDCS can be a potential therapeutic modality in semantic dementia. Randomized Sham Controlled Clinical trials are required to establish the efficacy of tDCS and language training in the treatment of semantic dementia.

“When Four Elephants Fight in a Tourist Capital”: Linguistic Space Sharing Among Nyanja, Bemba, Tonga and Lozi Languages in Livingstone, Zambia

This study investigated sociolinguistic patterns of language use in Livingstone urban, Zambia. It was motivated by the fact that four geographically recognised regional official languages by government linguistic zoning have converged in a single space where one of them, Tonga has traditionally been predominant in line with government prescription. The three languages which have extended their tentacles to Livingstone, which is Zambia's tourist capital, are: Nyanja (zoned for Lusaka and Eastern Province), Bemba (zoned for Northern, Luapula, Muchinga, Copperbelt and parts of Central provinces) and Lozi (zoned for Western Province). The main objective of the study was to investigate how these languages share the available linguistic space in both formal and informal domains in the urban setting of Livingstone. The specific domains were: the markets, churches, learning institutions, health centres and community gatherings. The study employed primarily the qualitative approach with limited aspects of quantitative data in form of frequency tables. The data were collected from the observation of the speech behaviour exhibited by the speakers and listeners in the respective speech domains. In addition, in each of the speech domains, interviews were conducted using interview guides. The study found that the four languages were used in different speech domains and that each was more dominant than the others in specific domains. For example in market places and schools the use of Nyanja appeared to be more dominant while that of Bemba was more dominant in Pentecostal churches. The use of Tonga and Lozi was more prominent in the Seventh Day Adventist congregations. At funeral gatherings, the ethnic group to which the bereaved family belonged dictated the choice of language to use. However, in some instances, the speakers used English, especially when dealing with the representatives of the company or department where the deceased used to work. The understanding was that these, though attending an informal programme, were actually on formal duty where whatever they said was conveyed in English the national formal language. If any of the languages was used other than the four, translation was provided for into the bereaved family's language. "When Four Elephants Fight in a Tourist Capital”: Linguistic Space Sharing Among Nyanja, Bemba, Tonga and Lozi Languages in Livingstone, Zambia