Spectator Attendance Research Articles

Do sporting events amplify airborne virus transmission? Causal evidence from US professional team sports

We analyze the impact of professional sporting events on local seasonal influenza mortality to develop evidence on the role played by spectator attendance at sporting events in airborne virus transmission. Results from a difference-in-differences model applied to data from a sample of US cities that gained new professional sports teams over the period 1962–2016 show that the presence of games in these cities increased local influenza mortality by between 4% and 24%, depending on the sport, relative to cities with no professional sports teams and relative to mortality in those cities before a new team arrived. Influenza mortality fell in cities with teams in some years when work stoppages occurred in sports leagues. Health policy decisions, and decisions about the subsidization of professional sports, should take into account the role played by sporting events in increasing airborne virus transmission and local influenza and coronavirus mortality.

Consuming Contests: The Effect of Outcome Uncertainty on Spectator Attendance in the Australian Football League*

Contests that non‐contestants consume for entertainment are a fixture of economic, cultural and political life. We exploit injury‐induced changes to teams' line‐ups in a professional sports setting to examine whether individuals prefer to consume contests that have more uncertain outcomes. Studying data from the Australian Football League, we use an instrumental variables design to show that a one standard deviation increase in game outcome uncertainty causes, on average, an 11.2 per cent increase in attendance. When presented alongside ordinary least square's estimates, our results suggest that previous studies may heavily underestimate spectators' preferences for evenly balanced contests.

Motivation on Environment Factors among Football Spectators Attendance at Shah Alam Stadium

This study aimed to determine the relationship between motivation and environmental factors among football spectators' attendance at Shah Alam Stadium. A total of 113 respondents were involved in this study. The result showed that the highest mean in the motivation factor is 'identification with subculture', which is 3.98 (SD=0.805). Meanwhile, the highest mean in the stadium environment factor is 'desire to stay with 3.91 (SD=0.777). The result showed a significant relationship between motivation and stadium environment factor with a p-value of 0.00, p<0.01. This empirical data will make a better understanding of the motivation of spectator attendance in stadiums Keywords: Spectators; Motivation; Stadium Environment factor eISSN: 2398-4287 © 2022. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA cE-Bs by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open access article under the CC BYNC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21834/ebpj.v7iSI7%20(Special%20Issue).3826

Recommencement of Sport Leagues With Spectators at the Adelaide Oval During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Planning, Experience, and Impact of a Globally Unprecedented Approach.

Non-pharmaceutical interventions including physical distancing and restriction on public gatherings were the cornerstone in controlling the COVID-19 pandemic, in the absence of effective vaccines and available treatment options. Many sport mega-events and sport leagues were canceled or indefinitely postponed, leaving stadiums globally empty or converted to be used as part of the COVID-19 response. There were calls for exit strategies to be developed. With the early containment of COVID-19 in South Australia, various restrictions were lifted in a staged and controlled manner, including the reopening of the Adelaide Oval for recommencement of sport leagues with spectator attendance. This involved the collaboration between public health authorities, other governmental agencies, Adelaide Oval Stadium Management Authority, various sporting leagues etc. Recommencement of sport leagues with staged increase in number of attending spectators allowed various measures to be introduced, revisited, and implemented accordingly, demonstrating that a case-by-case risk assessment can be conducted for mega-events during COVID-19, accounting for the epidemiological context at the time. Economic impacts and non-economic benefits of this recommencement were documented. This globally unprecedented, staged and controlled approach in returning spectators to sporting events during the COVID-19 pandemic could inform the reopening strategy of stadiums, recommencement of sport leagues and mega-events all over the world before herd immunity is achieved or in the event of future outbreaks.

Large-scale sport events and COVID-19 infection effects: evidence from the German professional football ‘experiment’

SummaryThis paper studies the effects of large-scale sport events with live spectators on COVID-19 infection trends at the local population level. Specifically, we compare the development of incidence rates in 41 German Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics level 3 (NUTS-3) districts hosting a professional football match with at least 1,000 spectators vis-à-vis similar districts without hosting a match. Our empirical analysis builds on difference-in-difference and dynamic event study estimation for panel data. Synthetic control method is applied as a robustness check. While our findings generally do not point to significant treatment effects for the full sample of match locations, we find some noteworthy exceptions. Districts hosting first league matches with spectator attendance above the median (> 6,300 persons) and, particularly, matches without strict face mask requirements experienced a significant relative rise in incidence rates 14 days after the match. We also find that intra-district mobility increases on match days in treated districts, highlighting the significance of professional football matches as mobility-based infection transmission channel.

Are spectator preferences weaker for cup compared to league competitions? Evidence from Irish soccer

ABSTRACT This paper exploits data from eight recent playing seasons to examine the spectator appeal for League of Ireland fans of the national soccer challenge cup competition (the FAI cup). The study finds a sizable spectator attendance penalty for Premier Division clubs in FAI cup games for the earlier rounds of the tournament compared to league fixtures against the same opposition. However, this is reversed by the penultimate stage of the tournament. The policy implications of these findings are discussed.

The Effect of League Design on Spectator Attendance: A Regression Discontinuity Design Approach

This paper exploits a sharp regression discontinuity design to identify the causal impact of the Scottish Premiership League (SPL) “split” on spectator match attendance. We use data drawn from all 19 completed seasons for which this institutional arrangement has been in place. The causal effect of the “split” is to induce, for the last five rounds of games played in the season, a differential in average attendance of about 24% between the clubs that just qualify for the “Championship Play-off” section and those that do not. However, the annualized effect for the season is found to be modest.

When Hockey Won’t Sell in Minnesota: Using Design Thinking to Innovate the Ticket Service

This case study asks students to assume the role of a ticket sales strategist hired to work as a consultant for the University of Minnesota Golden Gopher athletic department. In this case, you will be asked to work with members of the Gopher Fan Advisory Board to develop service innovations in the area of ticket sales. As a sales and marketing consultant, you will examine existing data on spectator attendance trends and focus group interviews to determine the current issues facing the athletic department. Then, you will be asked to suggest the manners by which the athletic department should innovate the ticket service, using a design thinking approach to grow ticket sales and spectator attendance for the men’s hockey program.

How We Can Enhance Spectator Attendance for the Sustainable Development of Sport in the Era of Uncertainty: A Re-Examination of Competitive Balance

This study seeks to find factors that determine the mobilization of spectators in games of the Korean professional baseball league for sustainable development. In particular, it re-examines the uncertainty-of-outcome hypothesis by looking at the effect of competitive balance (CB) on seat occupancy in stadiums. Data for 2160 games over three years (2015–2017) from the archives of the Korea Baseball Organization (KBO) were analyzed. The results show that the CB of the home team, with the entire teams, affects seat occupancy rate (SOR). It is also shown that there exists an inverted U-shaped curvilinear relationship between CB and SOR. However, the winning percentage of the home team in the entire league had a significant impact on the SOR. This implies that the overall athletic performance of the home team in the league competing with all other teams is much more important than the home team’s competitive balance in the season played before the game, for attracting fans to the stadium.

Buying the hype? Assessing the impact of top-drafted rookies on spectator attendance in the NBA

ABSTRACT Recent sports economics literature has focused on ‘superstar effects,’ or the independent impact of certain exceptional players on fan attendance at live events. This paper investigates the effect of top-drafted rookies on game attendance in the National Basketball Association from the 2012–13 through 2018–19 seasons. Hypothesizing that the nature of modern basketball could lend unique popularity to top draft picks during their rookie seasons, I find that the presence of top-ten draftees on both home and visiting teams is associated with average increases between 150 and 190 spectators per game throughout the second half of their rookie seasons. These marginal effects are statistically indistinguishable from the impact of an additional All-Star player on the visiting team. Unlike previous work, the censored regression model used in this paper accounts for teams’ use of standing room to generate attendance beyond their listed arena capacities, a relevant consideration in over a quarter of the 8,594-game sample.

Identifying key factors in momentum in basketball games

Momentum as elaborated under a recent novel definition has been shown quantitatively to have a significant impact on basketball game outcomes. This paper makes two contributions to the analytical literature on sports momentum: (1) two aspects of the new definition are operationalized so that its practicality becomes evident; and (2) through a dimension-reduction technique (elastic net), key factors associated with momentum are identified. Both technical variables such as field goals, assists, rebounds, etc. and environmental variables such as the spectator attendance rate and player salary dispersion are considered, and the potential for useful real-time analyzes is illustrated.

How multiple identities shape behavioral intention: place and team identification on spectator attendance

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to investigate the complexity of how spectators' multiple identities influence their behavioral intention. Specifically, the authors examined the effects of spectators' place identification, team identification and an interaction effect on attendance intention using social identity complexity framework.Design/methodology/approachData were collected from spectators attending professional baseball games in South Korea. While 550 questionnaires were returned, 475 (86.36%) were used in the analysis after excluding incomplete responses. The research model was tested using latent moderated structural equations modeling.FindingsResults indicated place identification only influenced attendance intentions through an interaction effect, while team identity directly affects attendance intention. Highly identified sport consumers intended to attend future games regardless of place identification, while the sense of love for the team's home region motivated low-identified sport consumers more to attend future games.Originality/valueThe findings of this research led to understanding the relationships between multiple identities and behavioral intention and provided the spectator sport industry with valuable strategies to manage their sport consumers.

Does fan discrimination exist? Mixed-method investigation of customer discrimination in Chinese professional baseball league

This paper focuses on customer discrimination in the Chinese Professional Baseball League (CPBL). Using the 2005–2017 annual spectator attendance data, we first show that inverse customer discrimination exists for international players. We next explore the roots of customer discrimination from the perspective of economics alongside social psychology. We find customer discrimination in the CPBL a combined outcome of taste-based and statistical discrimination, and can be explained by reference group theory. This study thus aims to develop a sports fans’ customer discrimination scale, which is demonstrated to consist of three major elements: players’ characteristics, prestige and experience, and spectators’ confidence.

Does Star Power Boost Soccer Match Attendance? Empirical Evidence from the Chinese Soccer League

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of star power on game attendance. The essential aspect of demand for sport events is fan interest, which can be shown through match attendance, watching contests, buying team-related products, and following a team on media. To conduct this study, all attendance data from the 2015, 2016, and 2017 seasons of the Chinese Super League were used to understand which factors impacted spectator attendance. Results of this study found that high profile teams, traditional rivalries or derbies, and famous foreign players can positively impact attendance at both home and away games, while members of the Chinese National Team had a negative impact on attendance. These results will give team owners a better understanding of Chinese soccer fans’ interests, ultimately leading to maximizing profit generation in ticket and merchandise sales. Implications for both sport managers and scholars are discussed.

After International Tournaments: Spectator Attendance at Domestic Professional Baseball Games in Taiwan

Most people believe a good performance by a national team in an international sports tournament can enhance the domestic interest in that sport. By examining the case of the Chinese Professional Baseball League (CPBL) in Taiwan, this paper investigates the follow-up influence of international tournaments on attendance at domestic games. It has been found that people react differently to tournaments held in and out of Taiwan and to mega and non-mega events. If the national team participates in a mega international tournament abroad, attendance at the CPBL games for the following season increases by 770 people or 24.3% per game. However, for non-mega international tournaments, the attendance effects differ based on how well the national team performs. If the national team cannot beat at least 78% of the teams in a non-mega tournament abroad or half of the teams in a tournament held in Taiwan, the average attendance may fall.

The complex challenge of spectator demand: attendance drivers in the Danish men’s handball league

ABSTRACTResearch question: A growing number of studies of professional team sports have tried to understand the drivers behind match-day attendance. However, no research has ever been conducted in relation to team handball. As existing literature mainly focuses on European football and US Major League sports, club managers from smaller sports lack the evidence that could assist them in developing strategies to increase attendance. This study is a step toward filling this gap.Research methods: Using robust panel data regression models deployed on data from Danish men’s team handball league matches in the seasons from 2011/12 to 2015/16, the study identifies the main determinants of spectator demand.Results and findings: The findings are largely consistent with existing research, but also reveal new insights that seem to be specific to handball. These include (1) negative effects on spectator demand due to simultaneous live television coverage of other league matches; (2) no obvious preferences for weekend matches and (3) weather-related factors, whereby rain has a positive effect and snow a negative effect, while variations in temperature have no effect.Implications: To maximize spectator attendance, we suggest that league managers and club representatives take the problem of simultaneous broadcasts from other league matches into consideration when planning the schedule in the future. Further, we argue that games should be placed in the time slots with highest spectator demand while recognizing that this can be club-specific. Finally, we recommend that clubs increase their efforts in promoting games involving strong away teams.

Leveling the Ice: The Discrepancy Between Male and Female Athletics at Boston College

This paper explores multiple published articles regarding the societal assumption that women’s sports are less competitive and less engaging than men’s sports. Some articles, such as Women’s Sports Foundation (2010) and Carpenter & Acosta (2005),cite lack of funds and media visibility as to why women’s sports are not as highly regarded as men’s sports. Other articles, such as Messner (2000) and NWLC (2012), explain that the disproportion in coverage of men’s and women’s sports is based onsociety’s expectations of women and the assumption feminine“weaknesses” This paper examines the men’s and women’s ice hockey teams at Boston College and details the issues surrounding team schedules, fan attendance, university support, and media presence in an attempt to determine whether BC Women’s Ice Hockey receives different levels of support and investment from BC compared to the BC Men’s Hockey team, and whether this differential investment leads to a unique spectator experience that may explain the lack of spectator attendance at BC women’s hockey games.

The Research on Spectator Attendance of Korea Professional Football League

The spectator attendance situation partially reflects one nation’s professional football league development situation. The K-League is the first professional football league founded in Asia and well developed. There are three restrict factors to the spectator attendance of K-League. Firstly is the promotion and demotion system, secondly is the place of football in the national ideas, thirdly is the population and economic situation. After gathers and analyses the data of Spectator attendances and league scores situation of each K-League team from season 1996 to season 2014, finds out the spectator figures and league score have significant relationship, and they are reciprocal causation to each other. K-League football teams should start both from boosting the ticket market and enhancing the league competitiveness. Considering the economic develop situation of Korea, the K-League teams should combine with the resource advantages from entertainment industry, while provide bargain priced tickets, uses the influence from entertainment and sport stars to nurturing the fan bases and increases the Spectator attendance. Thus to motivates the players to put more strength during the match to increase the team competitiveness and further promotes the league development.

If We Build it, Will They Come?: Examining the Effect of Expansion Teams and Soccer-Specific Stadiums on Major League Soccer Attendance

Purpose – Two of the primary growth strategies for Major League Soccer (MLS) have been team expansion and the construction of soccer-specific stadiums. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to determine the relationship between these factors and game-specific MLS spectator attendance. Design/methodology/approach – Two multiple regression models, one using multi-level mixed effects linear regression and another using interval regression, were developed to explain the variation in attendance utilizing the two factors of interest along with other control factors that have been identified as attendance determinants in previous literature. Game-specific data were collected for five MLS seasons, 2007-2011. Findings – The two regression models explained approximately 40 percent of the variation in spectator attendance and the results showed that expansion teams and soccer-specific stadiums were significantly related to attendance. However, the effect of soccer-specific stadiums was minimized due to the extreme success of the Seattle Sounders in drawing about twice as many fans as the next highest drawing franchise, yet playing in an American football stadium. Research limitations/implications – While many of the standard factors such as the presence of holidays and novelty players, competition from other professional teams, and day of week, competition from other professional teams; team quality failed to show significance. Expansion teams drew better than incumbent teams and the impact from soccer-specific stadia is weak given the success of the Seattle franchise (and possibly negative when excluding Seattle). Censoring of the dependent variable had a discernible impact on many of the attendance factors. Practical implications – These findings may be useful to managers of MLS and their teams along with other professional teams and/or leagues that are investigating the use of either team expansion or the construction of new facilities to increase spectator attendance. Originality/value – This is the first study to investigate the relationship between expansion and new stadium construction in MLS over multiple years. The results indicate that MLS’s decision to use team expansion and the construction of soccer-specific stadiums has been beneficial with respect to spectator attendance.

If we build it, will they come? Examining the effect of expansion teams and soccer-specific stadiums on Major League Soccer attendance

Purpose– Two of the primary growth strategies for Major League Soccer (MLS) have been team expansion and the construction of soccer-specific stadiums. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to determine the relationship between these factors and game-specific MLS spectator attendance.Design/methodology/approach– Two multiple regression models, one using multi-level mixed effects linear regression and another using interval regression, were developed to explain the variation in attendance utilizing the two factors of interest along with other control factors that have been identified as attendance determinants in previous literature. Game-specific data were collected for five MLS seasons, 2007-2011.Findings– The two regression models explained approximately 40 percent of the variation in spectator attendance and the results showed that expansion teams and soccer-specific stadiums were significantly related to attendance. However, the effect of soccer-specific stadiums was minimized due to the extreme success of the Seattle Sounders in drawing about twice as many fans as the next highest drawing franchise, yet playing in an American football stadium.Research limitations/implications– While many of the standard factors such as the presence of holidays and novelty players, competition from other professional teams, and day of week, competition from other professional teams; team quality failed to show significance. Expansion teams drew better than incumbent teams and the impact from soccer-specific stadia is weak given the success of the Seattle franchise (and possibly negative when excluding Seattle). Censoring of the dependent variable had a discernible impact on many of the attendance factors.Practical implications– These findings may be useful to managers of MLS and their teams along with other professional teams and/or leagues that are investigating the use of either team expansion or the construction of new facilities to increase spectator attendance.Originality/value– This is the first study to investigate the relationship between expansion and new stadium construction in MLS over multiple years. The results indicate that MLS’s decision to use team expansion and the construction of soccer-specific stadiums has been beneficial with respect to spectator attendance.