Specimen-specific Finite Element Models Research Articles

Determination of the internal loads experienced by proximal phalanx fracture fixations during rehabilitation exercises.

Phalangeal fractures are common, particularly in younger patients, leading to a large economic burden due to higher incident rates among patients of working age. In traumatic cases where the fracture may be unstable, plate fixation has grown in popularity due to its greater construct rigidity. However, these metal plates have increased reoperation rates due to inflammation of the surrounding soft tissue. To overcome these challenges, a novel osteosynthesis platform, AdhFix, has been developed. This method uses a light-curable polymer that can be shaped in situ around traditional metal screws to create a plate-like structure that has been shown to not induce soft tissue adhesions. However, to effectively evaluate any novel osteosynthesis device, the biomechanical environment must first be understood. In this study, the internal loads in a phalangeal plate osteosynthesis were measured under simulated rehabilitation exercises. In a human hand cadaver study, a plastic plate with known biomechanical properties was used to fix a 3mm osteotomy and each finger was fully flexed to mimic traditional rehabilitation exercises. The displacements of the bone fragments were tracked with a stereographic camera system and coupled with specimen specific finite element (FE) models to calculate the internal loads in the osteosynthesis. Following this, AdhFix patches were created and monotonically tested under similar conditions to determine survival of the novel technique. The internal bending moment in the osteosynthesis was 6.78 ± 1.62Nmm and none of the AdhFix patches failed under the monotonic rehabilitation exercises. This study demonstrates a method to calculate the internal loads on an osteosynthesis device during non-load bearing exercises and that the novel AdhFix solution did not fail under traditional rehabilitation protocols in this controlled setting. Further studies are required prior to clinical application.

VALIDATED FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATIONS PREDICT OVERLOADING FAILURE OF OSTEOSYNTHESIS PLATES

Osteosynthesis aims to maintain fracture reduction until bone healing occurs, which is not achieved in case of mechanical fixation failure. One form of failure is plastic plate bending due to overloading, occurring in up to 17% of midshaft fracture cases and often necessitating reoperation. This study aimed to replicate in-vivo conditions in a cadaveric experiment and to validate a finite element (FE) simulation to predict plastic plate bending.Six cadaveric bones were used to replicate an established ovine tibial osteotomy model with locking plates in-vitro with two implant materials (titanium, steel) and three fracture gap sizes (30, 60, 80 mm). The constructs were tested monotonically until plastic plate deformation under axial compression. Specimen-specific FE models were created from CT images. Implant material properties were determined using uniaxial tensile testing of dog bone shaped samples. The experimental tests were replicated in the simulations. Stiffness, yield, and maximum loads were compared between the experiment and FE models.Implant material properties (Young's modulus and yield stress) for steel and titanium were 184 GPa and 875 MPa, and 105 GPa and 761 MPa, respectively. Yield and maximum loads of constructs ranged between 469–491 N and 652–683 N, and 759–995 N and 1252–1600 N for steel and titanium fixations, respectively. FE models accurately and quantitatively correctly predicted experimental results for stiffness (R2=0.96), yield (R2=0.97), and ultimate load (R2=0.97).FE simulations accurately predicted plastic plate bending in osteosynthesis constructs. Construct behavior was predominantly driven by the implant itself, highlighting the importance of modelling correct material properties of metal. The validated FE models could predict subject-specific load bearing capacity of osteosyntheses in vivo in preclinical or clinical studies.Acknowledgements: This study was supported by the AO Foundation via the AOTRAUMA Network (Grant No.: AR2021_03).

A continuum damage model of fatigue and failure in whole bone

Predicting the fatigue failure of whole bone may provide insight into the etiology of stress fractures and lead to new methods for preventing and rehabilitating these injuries. Although finite element (FE) models of whole bone have been used to predict fatigue failure, they often do not consider the cumulative and nonlinear effect of fatigue damage, which causes stress redistribution over many loading cycles. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a continuum damage mechanics FE model for the prediction of fatigue damage and failure. Sixteen whole rabbit-tibiae were imaged using computed tomography (CT) and then cyclically loaded in uniaxial compression until failure. CT images were used to generate specimen-specific FE models and a custom program was developed to iteratively simulate cyclic loading and progressive modulus degradation associated with mechanical fatigue. Four tibiae from the experimental tests were used to develop a suitable damage model and define a failure criterion; the remaining twelve tibiae were used to test the validity of the continuum damage mechanics model. Fatigue-life predictions explained 71% of the variation in experimental fatigue-life measurements with a directional bias towards over-predicting fatigue-life in the low-cycle regime. These findings demonstrate the efficacy of using FE modeling with continuum damage mechanics to predict damage evolution and fatigue failure of whole bone. Through further refinement and validation, this model may be used to investigate different mechanical factors that influence the risk of stress fractures in humans.

Specimen-specific finite element representations of implanted hip capsules

The hip capsule is a ligamentous structure that contributes to hip stability. This article developed specimen-specific finite element models that replicated internal–external (I-E) laxity for ten implanted hip capsules. Capsule properties were calibrated to minimize root mean square error (RMSE) between model and experimental torques. RMSE across specimens was 1.02 ± 0.21 Nm for I-E laxity and 0.78 ± 0.33 Nm and 1.10 ± 0.48 Nm during anterior and posterior dislocation, respectively. RMSE for the same models with average capsule properties was 2.39 ± 0.68 Nm. Specimen-specific models demonstrated the importance of capsule tensioning in hip stability and have relevance for surgical planning and evaluation of implant designs.

The probability of whole-bone fatigue fracture can be accurately predicted using specimen-specific finite element analysis incorporating a stochastic failure model

A better understanding of the mechanisms of mechanical fatigue in bone could help improve understanding of the etiology of stress fractures. Investigations of small material samples of bone have identified a nonlinear relationship between strain magnitude, strained volume, and fatigue life, but it is non-trivial to extend these principles to predict the fatigue-life of whole bones which experience complex loading and non-uniform strain distribution. The purpose of this investigation was to experimentally validate a specimen-specific finite element (FE) model that predicts whole-bone fatigue failure using a stochastic model based on strain magnitude and volume. Thirty-four rabbit tibiae were previously tested to failure under cyclic compression, torsion, or both. Strain distribution during the test was estimated from computed-tomography based specimen-specific FE models, and a stochastic failure model based on strain magnitude and volume was used to predict the probability of failure as a function of loading cycles. Model predicted fracture risk matched experimental observations. Respectively, for the 25%, 50%, 75%, and 95% probabilistic predictions, we observed experimental failure ≤ model predicted values in 41%, 53%, 76%, and 80% of the tested specimens. A Brier scoring rule further demonstrated that this model, using strain magnitude and volume, more accurately predicted failure probability compared to two reference models that considered strain magnitude only. In conclusion, the stochastic model may be a powerful tool in future studies to assess mechanical factors that influence stress fracture risk.

Development of robust finite element models to investigate the stability of osteochondral grafts within porcine femoral condyles

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent chronic rheumatic disease worldwide with knee OA having an estimated lifetime risk of approximately 14%. Autologous osteochondral grafting has demonstrated positive outcomes in some patients, however, understanding of the biomechanical function and how treatments can be optimised remains limited. Increased short-term stability of the grafts allows cartilage surfaces to remain congruent prior to graft integration. In this study methods for generating specimen specific finite element (FE) models of osteochondral grafts were developed, using parallel experimental data for calibration and validation. Experimental testing of the force required to displace osteochondral grafts by 2 mm was conducted on three porcine knees, each with four grafts. Specimen specific FE models of the hosts and grafts were created from registered μCT scans captured from each knee (pre- and post-test). Material properties were based on the μCT background with a conversion between μCT voxel brightness and Young's modulus. This conversion was based on the results of the separate testing of eight porcine condyles and optimization of specimen specific FE models. The comparison between the experimental and computational push-in forces gave a strong agreement with a concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) = 0.75, validating the modelling approach. The modelling process showed that homogenous material properties based on whole bone BV/TV calculations are insufficient for accurate modelling and that an intricate description of the density distribution is required. The robust methodology can provide a method of testing different treatment options and can be used to investigate graft stability in full tibiofemoral joints.

Contribution to the 3R Principle: Description of a Specimen-Specific Finite Element Model Simulating 3-Point-Bending Tests in Mouse Tibiae.

Bone mechanical properties are classically determined by biomechanical tests, which normally destroy the bones and disable further histological or molecular analyses. Thus, obtaining biomechanical data from bone usually requires an additional group of animals within the experimental setup. Finite element models (FEMs) may non-invasively and non-destructively simulate mechanical characteristics based on material properties. The present study aimed to establish and validate an FEM to predict the mechanical properties of mice tibiae. The FEM was established based on µCT (micro-Computed Tomography) data of 16 mouse tibiae. For validating the FEM, simulated parameters were compared to biomechanical data obtained from 3-point bending tests of the identical bones. The simulated and the measured parameters correlated well for bending stiffness (R2 = 0.9104, p < 0.0001) and yield displacement (R2 = 0.9003, p < 0.0001). The FEM has the advantage that it preserves the bones’ integrity, which can then be used for other analytical methods. By eliminating the need for an additional group of animals for biomechanical tests, the established FEM can contribute to reducing the number of research animals in studies focusing on bone biomechanics. This is especially true when in vivo µCT data can be utilized where multiple bone scans can be performed with the same animal at different time points. Thus, by partially replacing biomechanical experiments, FEM simulations may reduce the overall number of animals required for an experimental setup investigating bone biomechanics, which supports the 3R (replace, reduce, and refine) principle.

Maize stalk stiffness and strength are primarily determined by morphological factors

The maize (Zea mays) stem is a biological structure that must balance both biotic and structural load bearing duties. These competing requirements are particularly relevant in the design of new bioenergy crops. Although increased stem digestibility is typically associated with a lower structural strength and higher propensity for lodging, with the right balance between structural and biological activities it may be possible to design crops that are high-yielding and have digestible biomass. This study investigates the hypothesis that geometric factors are much more influential in determining structural strength than tissue properties. To study these influences, both physical and in silico experiments were used. First, maize stems were tested in three-point bending. Specimen-specific finite element models were created based on x-ray computed tomography scans. Models were validated by comparison with experimental data. Sensitivity analyses were used to assess the influence of structural parameters such as geometric and material properties. As hypothesized, geometry was found to have a much stronger influence on structural stability than material properties. This information reinforces the notion that deficiencies in tissue strength could be offset by manipulation of stalk morphology, thus allowing the creation of stalks which are both resilient and digestible.

High throughput phenotyping of cross-sectional morphology to assess stalk lodging resistance

BackgroundStalk lodging (mechanical failure of plant stems during windstorms) leads to global yield losses in cereal crops estimated to range from 5% to 25% annually. The cross-sectional morphology of plant stalks is a key determinant of stalk lodging resistance. However, previously developed techniques for quantifying cross-sectional morphology of plant stalks are relatively low-throughput, expensive and often require specialized equipment and expertise. There is need for a simple and cost-effective technique to quantify plant traits related to stalk lodging resistance in a high-throughput manner.ResultsA new phenotyping methodology was developed and applied to a range of plant samples including, maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), wheat (Triticum aestivum), poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), and Arabidopsis (Arabis thaliana). The major diameter, minor diameter, rind thickness and number of vascular bundles were quantified for each of these plant types. Linear correlation analyses demonstrated strong agreement between the newly developed method and more time-consuming manual techniques (R2 > 0.9). In addition, the new method was used to generate several specimen-specific finite element models of plant stalks. All the models compiled without issue and were successfully imported into finite element software for analysis. All the models demonstrated reasonable and stable solutions when subjected to realistic applied loads.ConclusionsA rapid, low-cost, and user-friendly phenotyping methodology was developed to quantify two-dimensional plant cross-sections. The methodology offers reduced sample preparation time and cost as compared to previously developed techniques. The new methodology employs a stereoscope and a semi-automated image processing algorithm. The algorithm can be used to produce specimen-specific, dimensionally accurate computational models (including finite element models) of plant stalks.

Experimental and Computational Comparison of Intervertebral Disc Bulge for Specimen-Specific Model Evaluation Based on Imaging.

Finite element modelling of the spinal unit is a promising preclinical tool to assess the biomechanical outcome of emerging interventions. Currently, most models are calibrated and validated against range of motion and rarely directly against soft-tissue deformation. The aim of this contribution was to develop an in vitro methodology to measure disc bulge and assess the ability of different specimen-specific modelling approaches to predict disc bulge. Bovine bone-disc-bone sections (N = 6) were prepared with 40 glass markers on the intervertebral disc surface. These were initially magnetic resonance (MR)-imaged and then sequentially imaged using peripheral-qCT under axial compression of 1 mm increments. Specimen-specific finite-element models were developed from the CT data, using three different methods to represent the nucleus pulposus geometry with and without complementary use of the MR images. Both calibrated specimen-specific and averaged compressive material properties for the disc tissues were investigated. A successful methodology was developed to quantify the disc bulge in vitro, enabling observation of surface displacement on qCT. From the finite element model results, no clear advantage was found in using geometrical information from the MR images in terms of the models’ ability to predict stiffness or disc bulge for bovine intervertebral disc.

Decreased stress shielding with a PEEK femoral total knee prosthesis measured in validated computational models

Due to their high stiffness, metal femoral implants in total knee arthroplasty may cause stress shielding of the peri-prosthetic bone, which can lead to loss of bone stock. Using a polymer (PEEK) femoral implant reduces the stiffness mismatch between implant and bone, and therefore has the potential to decrease strain shielding. The goal of the current study was to evaluate this potential benefit of PEEK femoral components in cadaveric experiments. Cadaveric femurs were loaded in a materials testing device, while a 3-D digital image correlation set-up captured strains on the surface of the intact femurs and femurs implanted with PEEK and CoCr components. These experimental results were used to validate specimen-specific finite element models, which subsequently were used to assess the effect of metal and PEEK femoral components on the bone strain energy density. The finite element models showed strain maps that were highly comparable to the experimental measurements. The PEEK implant increased strain energy density, relative to the preoperative bone and compared to CoCr. This was most pronounced in the regions directly under the implant and near load contact sites. These data confirm the hypothesis that a PEEK femoral implant can reduce peri-prosthetic stress shielding.

Influence of pelvic shape on strain patterns: A computational analysis using finite element mesh morphing techniques

The pelvis functions to transmit upper body loads to the lower limbs and is critical in human locomotion. Semi-automated, finite element (FE) morphing techniques eliminate the need for segmentation and have shown to accelerate the generation of multiple specimen-specific pelvic FE models to enable the study of pelvic mechanical behaviour. The purpose of this research was to produce simulated human pelvic FE models representing android, gynecoid, anthropoid and platypelloid morphologies and to isolate differences in strain patterns due to anatomic shape under physiologic loading. Using five initially generated specimen-specific FE models, each specimen-specific FE model was reconfigured into three different morphologies using FE mesh morphing techniques. Significantly different strains were found comparing the gynecoid (classical female pelvis’) to the android (‘true male pelvis’) models (p = 0.040), with strains twice as high in the superior pubic rami. No significant differences were seen in comparing overall strains between the other pelvic shapes (p = 0.61–0.126). The highest strain regions in all models were found in the supra-acetabular regions, with high strains also found in the regions of the superior pubic rami, the greater sciatic notch and sacral regions about the L5 vertebrae. Quantifying the contributions of shape to strain in the pelvis may increase the understanding of sex and patient-specific differences in fracture risk and motivate the consideration of treatment strategies that account for anatomic pelvic differences.

Mapping spatially distributed material properties in finite element models of plant tissue using computed tomography

Plant tissues are often heterogeneous. To accurately investigate these tissues, methods to spatially map these tissue stiffness values onto finite element models are required. The aim was to study the feasibility of using specimen-specific computed tomography data to inform the spatial mapping of Young's modulus values on finite element models. Specimen-specific finite element models with mapped elastic moduli values were developed. The validation models predicted the structural response of the specimen tests within 11.0% of the physical test data. The ability of the models to accurately predict the force-displacement response of the specimen in a different test configuration was considered to be positive validation of the mapping approach. The existence of a model with accurate spatial distribution of material stiffnesses allows for investigations into the stress patterns within the rind and pith tissues. Typically, structural failure in transverse compression manifests as a crack that propagates in the pith along the line of load. In building detailed FEM analyses, we are able to investigate in more detail how the stress is distributed through the pith, and further investigate the causes of the stress concentrations that ultimately lead to the structural failure of the specimen. A method was developed for determining the relationship between computed-tomography intensity and the transverse elastic modulus in maize stalks. The mapping was used to accurately predict the response of each specimen thus indicating that the mapping relationship is appropriate for modelling and stress analysis activities.

Influence of Comprehensive Joint Loads on Tibial Implant Micromotion in Total Ankle Arthroplasty

Category:AnkleIntroduction/Purpose:Biologic fixation of total joint replacements by bone ingrowth requires minimal bone-implant micromotion [1]. Computational finite element (FE) models used to evaluate the interaction between implant and bone typically only consider simplified loading conditions based on the peak compressive force which occurs near toe-off [2,3]. However, a previous study focused on cementless knee replacements demonstrated that peak micromotion during activity cycles occurred with sub-maximal forces and moments [4]. Our objective was to calculate multi-axial loading at the ankle joint throughout level walking and evaluate tibial fixation of ankle replacements under these loading conditions. We hypothesized that peak micromotion would occur with sub-maximal loads and moments instead of at the instant of peak compressive load.Methods:Our validated six-degree-of-freedom robotic simulator utilizes in vivo data from human subjects to replicate the individual bone kinematics in cadaveric specimen throughout activity [5]. We rigidly fixed retro-reflective markers using bone pins to the tibia, talus, and calcaneus bones of three cadaveric specimens to record individual bone kinematics using motion capture cameras. We recorded the ground reaction and muscle-tendon forces during the simulated stance phase of level walking.Musculoskeletal models were then developed in OpenSim using the specimen-specific morphology and implant position from CT- scans and from the simulator outputs to determine the loading profile at the ankle joint during stance. The calculated loads were then applied to specimen-specific finite element models to evaluate the bone-implant interaction. Peak micromotion at each time point of loading was measured and compared to the loading profile to determine if it corresponded with the peak compressive load.Results:For all specimens, the peak compressive load at the ankle joint was accompanied by multi-axial moments and relatively small shear forces (Figure 1). The peak compressive load for each specimens was between 750 N and 850 N and occurred during 75-80% of gait. The largest moment experienced by all specimens was an internal moment late in stance. The peak micromotion for each specimen did not correspond to the instance of peak compressive load, as indicated in Figure 1. Instead, peak micromotion occurred at 54%, 88%, and 96% of gait. For each specimen, these instances corresponded to the combination of a sub-maximal compressive load with high eversion and internal moments.Conclusion:We have developed a workflow to calculate ankle joint loads corresponding to cadaveric simulations that reproduce a daily activity based on in vivo data. The specimen-specific, multi-axial loading profile at the ankle for our initial results suggests that peak micromotion at the bone-implant interface of the tibial implant does not coincide with the peak compressive force. The instant of peak compressive load may not capture the worst-case scenario for the interaction between the implant and the bone. Instead, the multi-axial forces and moments at the ankle joint throughout activity should be considered when evaluating implant fixation.

Finite element modeling of osteochondral explant impacts predicts locations of cell death

Purpose: Post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA) is a subset of osteoarthritis initiated by an injury such as a blunt impact. However, the local tissue mechanics associated with the earliest stages of PTOA remain undefined. Computational modeling techniques such as finite element analysis provide a means to evaluate mechanical environments that are challenging to measure experimentally. The objective of this work was to compare specimen-specific stresses and strains computed using finite element analysis to confocal microscopy images of chondrocyte viability. Methods: Four viable osteochondral explants (25 mm x 25 mm x 15 mm) were harvested from the tibial plateau of healthy bovine stifle joints (knee). Once removed, the explants were washed twice in HBSS, cultured in normal media (45% DMEM, 45% F12, 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 U/mL penicillin, 100 μg/mL streptomycin, and 2.5 μm/mL amphotericin B) and incubated at 37°C, 5% CO2, and 5% O2. The following day a surface scan of the articular surface of each explant (EinScan Pro 2X Pro; Shining 3D) and ultrasound measurements (Olympus 35DL) of cartilage thickness were acquired. Next, the explants were subject to a 2 J/cm2 impact using a 6 mm flat, beveled stainless-steel platen. After impact, the samples were placed in fresh porcine media and returned to the incubator for 24 h. Cartilage explants were cut with an Isomet 1000 (Buehler, Lake Bluff, IL) slightly off center of the impact and faced by trimming 0.5 mm of the cartilage with a scalpel. These provided a coronal plane cross-section of the explant through the center of the impact site. The explants were washed in phenol red free DMEM/F12 media and stained for 30 min in the incubator with 1 mg/mL Calcein Green AM and 200 nM MitoTracker Deep Red (Life Technologies, Waltham, MA). The samples were then washed and imaged on an Olympus FV1000 (Shinjuku, Japan) confocal microscope. Images were acquired on either edge of the impact, 1 mm inside each edge of the impact site, and in the center of the impact (Figure 1) using a 10X objective lens. An additional top-down view of the articular surface was acquired. Specimen-specific finite element models were generated using the surface scan, cartilage thickness measurements, and geometric measurements of each explant. Cartilage was modeled as hyperelastic with a first-order Ogden strain energy potential. Acceleration of the impact platen was measured (PCB Piezotronics accelerometer), and double integration was used to calculate platen displacement at max tissue compression and impact force. von Mises stress and normal z strain values were compared from corresponding nodes within confocal images (Figure 2). Cell death in the superficial zone and deeper regions of cartilage was assessed. Results: Cell death was present in the superficial zone in 4/4 peripheral edge locations, 3/4 locations interior to the impactor edge and 3/4 of the middle sites. There was no superficial cell death on the central edge of the impact zone. Locations experiencing > 40% strain were associated with high levels of cell death in the superficial zone. When strains exceeded 60%, cell death extended into the deeper zones of the cartilage. It was noteworthy that the highest strains were found at the 1-mm interior to the impact platen edge on all specimens. Von Mises stresses were consistently &gt 30 MPa on the edge of the impact site; however, no obvious relationships were identified between von Mises values and cell death in the superficial, middle, or deep zones. Conclusions: We found strong associations between cartilage strain and chondrocyte death. The highest normal z strain occurs just interior to the beveled edge of the impact platen, and not on the peripheral-most edge of the impact platen. While we did find associations between locations of elevated stress, strain, and cell death, the magnitudes of those values remain to be validated. While important, cell death is a relatively broad measure of injury and associations between cellular health and function and these mechanical measures should be explored.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT)

Specimen-Specific Finite Element Models for Predicting Fretting Wear in Total Hip Arthroplasty Tapers.

Products from fretting wear and corrosion in the taper junction of total hip arthroplasty (THA) devices can lead to adverse local tissue reactions. Predicting damage as a function of design parameters would aid in the development of more robust devices. The objectives of this study were to develop an automated method for identifying areas of fretting wear on THA taper junctions, and to assess the predictive ability of a finite element model to simulate fretting wear in THA taper junctions. THA constructs were fatigue loaded, thus inducing damage on the stem taper. An automated imaging and analysis algorithm quantified fretting wear on the taper surfaces. Specimen-specific finite element models were used to calculate fretting work done (FWD) at the taper junction. Simulated FWD was correlated to imaged fretting wear. Results showed that the automated imaging approach identified fretting wear on the taper surface. Additionally, finite element models showed the greatest predictive ability for tapers exhibiting distal contact. Finite element models predicted an average of 30.3% of imaged fretting wear. With additional validation, the imaging and finite element techniques may be useful to manufacturers and regulators in the development and review of new THA devices.

Optimizing computational methods of modeling vertebroplasty in experimentally augmented human lumbar vertebrae.

Vertebroplasty has been widely used for the treatment of osteoporotic compression fractures but the efficacy of the technique has been questioned by the outcomes of randomized clinical trials. Finite‐element (FE) models allow an investigation into the structural and geometric variation that affect the response to augmentation. However, current specimen‐specific FE models are limited due to their poor reproduction of cement augmentation behavior. The aims of this study were to develop new methods of modeling the vertebral body in both a nonaugmented and augmented state. Experimental tests were conducted using human lumbar spine vertebral specimens. These tests included micro‐computed tomography imaging, mechanical testing, augmentation with cement, reimaging, and retesting. Specimen‐specific FE models of the vertebrae were made comparing different approaches to capturing the bone material properties and to modeling the cement augmentation region. These methods significantly improved the modeling accuracy of nonaugmented vertebrae. Methods that used the registration of multiple images (pre‐ and post‐augmentation) of a vertebra achieved good agreement between augmented models and their experimental counterparts in terms of predictions of stiffness. Such models allow for further investigation into how vertebral variation influences the mechanical outcomes of vertebroplasty.

Biomechanics of callus in the bone healing process, determined by specimen-specific finite element analysis.

As fractures heal, immature callus formed in the hematoma is calcified by osteoblasts and altered to mature bone. Although the bone strength in the fracture-healing process cannot be objectively measured in clinical settings, bone strength can be predicted by specimen-specific finite element modeling (FEM) of quantitative computed tomography (qCT) scans. FEM predictions of callus strength would enable an objective treatment plan. The present study establishes an equation that converts material properties to bone density and proposes a specimen-specific FEM. In 10 male New Zealand white rabbits, a 10-mm long bone defect was created in the center of the femur and fixed by an external fixator. The callus formed in the defect was extracted after 3-6weeks, and formed into a (5×5×5mm3) cube. The bone density measured by qCT was related to the Young's modulus and the yield stress measured with a mechanical tester. For validation, a 10-mm long bone defect was created in the central femurs of another six New Zealand white rabbits, and fixed by an external fixator. At 3, 4, and 5weeks, the femur was removed and subjected to Computed tomography (CT) scanning and mechanical testing. A specimen-specific finite element model was created from the CT data. Finally, the bone strength was measured and compared with the experimental value. The bone mineral density σ was significantly and nonlinearly correlated with both the Young's modulus E and the yield stress σ. The material-property conversion equations were E=0.2391e8.00ρ and ρ=30.49σ2.41. Moreover, the experimental bone strength was significantly linearly correlated with the prospective FEM. We demonstrated the Young's moduli and yield stresses for different bone densities, enabling a FEM of the bone-healing process. An FEM based on these material properties is expected to yield objective clinical judgment criteria.

Inflation experiments and inverse finite element modelling of posterior human sclera

The complexity of inverse finite element modelling methods used in ocular biomechanics research has significantly increased in recent years in order to produce material parameters that capture microscale tissue behaviour. This study presents a more accessible method for researchers to optimise sclera material parameters for use in finite element studies where macroscale sclera displacements are required.Five human donor sclerae aged between 36 and 72 years were subjected to cycles of internal pressure up to 61 mmHg using a custom-built inflation rig. Displacements were measured using a laser beam and two cameras through a digital image correlation algorithm. Specimen-specific finite element models incorporating regional thickness variation and sclera surface topography were divided into six circumferential regions. An inverse finite element procedure was used to optimise Ogden material parameters for each region.The maximum root mean squared (RMS) error between the numerical and experimental displacements within individual specimens was 17.5 µm. The optimised material parameters indicate a gradual reduction in material stiffness (as measured by the tangent modulus) from the equator to the posterior region at low-stress levels up to 0.005 MPa. The variation in stiffness between adjacent regions became gradually less apparent and statistically insignificant at higher stresses.The study demonstrated how inflation testing combined with inverse modelling could be used to effectively characterise regional material properties capable of reproducing global sclera displacements. The material properties were found to vary between specimens, and it is expected that age could be a contributing factor behind this variation.

A Validated, Specimen-Specific Finite Element Model of the Supraspinatus Tendon Mechanical Environment.

Rotator cuff tears are a significant clinical problem previously investigated by unvalidated computational models that either use simplified geometry or isotropic elastic material properties to represent the tendon. The objective of this study was to develop an experimentally validated, finite element model of supraspinatus tendon using specimen-specific geometry and inhomogeneous material properties to predict strains in intact supraspinatus tendon at multiple abduction angles. Three-dimensional tendon surface strains were determined at 60 deg, 70 deg, and 90 deg of glenohumeral abduction for articular and bursal surfaces of supraspinatus tendon during cyclic loading (5-200 N, 50 cycles, 20 mm/min) to serve as validation data for computational model predictions. A finite element model was developed using the tendon geometry and inhomogeneous material properties to predict surface strains for loading conditions mimicking experimental loading conditions. Experimental strains were directly compared with computational model predictions to validate the model. Overall, the model successfully predicted magnitudes of strains that were within the experimental repeatability of 3% strain of experimental measures on both surfaces of the tendon. Model predictions and experiments showed the largest strains to be located on the articular surface (∼8% strain) between the middle and the anterior edge of the tendon. Importantly, the reference configuration chosen to calculate strains had a significant effect on strain calculations, and therefore, must be defined with an innovative optimization algorithm. This study establishes a rigorously validated specimen-specific (both geometry and material properties) computational model using novel surface strain measurements for the use in investigating the function of the supraspinatus tendon and to ultimately predict the propagation of supraspinatus tendon tears based on the tendon's mechanical environment.