Specific Sports Research Articles

Early sport specialization in the adolescent female athlete

: A growing trend in sports is early sport specialization which involves training in a single sport on a year-round basis. Factors that contribute to an athlete specializing in a sport include: enjoyment of the sport, obtaining a scholarship, professional aspirations, gaining a competitive advantage, lack of enjoyment in other sports, injury risk, lack of time to participate in other sports, and parent/coach pressure. With the growing hyper competitiveness and professionalization of sports and lucrative financial gains that proceed them, more and more young athletes, coaches and parents are looking to gain a competitive edge. Sport specialization may contribute to increased risk of injury and burnout in athletes. Male athletes have garnered most of the attention regarding early sport specialization, particularly in baseball. Female athletes have their own set of risk factors as they tend to specialize earlier in their athletic career and have been shown to accumulate primarily overuse injuries. In addition to contributing to this paper, Dr. James R. Andrews has been one of the leaders in injury prevention and an advocate in cautioning against early sport specialization in all young athletes. The focus of this paper is to highlight the specific risks associated with sport specialization for adolescent female athletes in hopes of developing successful athletes while avoiding injury or burnout along their path. Over the years there has been a trend of increased youth sports participation by female athletes. As female athlete participation continues to increase, we concomitantly have an increase in injury rates. Additionally, the iconic female influences of superstars like Nadia Comaneci and Lindsey Vonn has popularized the notion of sports specialization in young female athletes. Thus, with both the increase in participation as well as the heightened popularity of sport specialization, greater focus needs to be devoted to injury recognition and prevention in youth female athletes. Identifying the at-risk female athlete is prudent for the health and well-being of our youth athletes.

Proceed With Caution: A Teaching Case Study of Youth Sport Specialization

As sport specialization continues to shape the youth sport landscape, it is critical for sport management professionals, coaches, parents, and athletes to understand how this trend affects programming and policy development. While youth sport specialization often leads to increased athletic skill in an accelerated time frame, specialization can result in overuse injury, burnout, and delayed social development for children. It is essential that sport management students are aware of the trend in youth sport specialization and the various opportunities available to help educate/collaborate with stakeholders. Furthermore, students need to be exposed to youth sport specialization to better understand how to efficiently manage policy and programs involved in youth, and to understand contemporary research and theory leading to best practices.

Comparison of American Quarter Horses Competing in Western Pleasure, Hunter under Saddle, and Reining Using Linear Traits.

Simple SummaryThis study analyzed differences between successful American Quarter Horses competing in different disciplines by using linear traits. The goal was to detect whether American Quarter Horses successful in specific disciplines significantly differed in exterior traits. Traits were measured analogically and photometrically. Differences in lengths, angles, ratios, and circumferences were detected. Further studies are needed to better examine the specialized traits and the effect of genomic variance.To investigate differences in American Quarter Horses conformation suggesting specialization and subpopulations within the breed, a total of 45 horses were studied. These horses were classified according to their specific sport discipline: Western Pleasure (WPL, n = 15), Hunter under Saddle (HUS, n = 15), and Reining (RN, n = 15). Fifteen linear traits (comprising lengths, angles, and circumferences) were measured analogically and photometrically. Afterwards, 9 ratios and differences were calculated, so that a total of 24 traits were examined. The results showed significant differences between horses depending on their sport discipline. HUS horses were significant taller and were characterized by higher values in (nearly) all length traits; they were followed by WPL and RN horses. RN horses displayed the lowest values in length traits but the largest difference between height at withers and height at croup. Nine parameters were analyzed through correlations to the height at withers; all differences were significant, with high to moderate correlation coefficients. The detected differences between the groups support recent studies on the conformation and genotype of subpopulations within a breed and reveal new findings in relation to the selected disciplines. Image analysis worked well and provided reliable data; therefore, this method can be used to examine horses in a time-efficient manner, reducing the stress caused to the animal. Further studies are required to gain more information and to associate the features of AQH anatomic structures with successful performance.

Does stammering act as a barrier to exercise and sport in Irish adults who stammer?

PurposeExercise and sport participation lead to many physical and psychosocial benefits. However, barriers to exercise and sporting participation exist. This study aims to examine if stammering acts as a barrier to exercise and sporting participation in adults. MethodsOne hundred and six adults who stammer (male n = 74, female n = 32; 33.83 ± 14.5 years) completed an anonymous questionnaire which evaluated their stammering history, exercise and sporting participation, views on why they exercise, whether stammering prevented or negatively influenced their participation in exercise or sport. Descriptive statistics were then calculated. ResultsThe majority (90.6 %) of participants take part in some form of exercise/sport. However, their stammer prevented them from taking part in a specific exercise/sport at least once (49.1 %), due to being too nervous to introduce themselves, nervous or fear of stammering or being judged. Their stammer also negatively impacted their involvement when participating at least once (42.4 %), with not feeling part of the team and fear of speaking reported. Self-disclosure of their stammer and improving awareness of stammering were identified as common facilitators for taking part in exercise/sport. ConclusionStammering was not found to impact general participation in exercise and sport but was identified as a barrier to partaking in specific exercise and sport and their enjoyment thereof. Encouraging those who stammer to inform those involved in sport and exercise (e.g. fellow players, coaches) about their stammer and improving stammer awareness across the general and sporting population may encourage further participation in exercise and sport in those who stammer.

The event-focused interview: what is it, why is it useful, and how is it used?

ABSTRACT There has been longstanding interest in understanding how people think, feel, and behave in sport and exercise activities. Although naturalistic recordings, momentary assessments, and post-event questionnaires have been employed to capture information on people’s experiences, these methods can have some shortcomings for researchers interested in advancing knowledge of certain social-psychological phenomena, especially in natural settings. The purpose of this paper is to describe the event-focused interview method and outline its utility for researchers who are interested in capturing rich, in-depth information on episodic phenomena, such as particular moments, events, psychological states, and experiences. First, we describe the event-focused interview method and the background to its development. Second, we highlight the limitations of naturalistic recordings, existing momentary assessment methods, and post-event questionnaires for certain types of research, before explaining why event-focused interviews can add to the suite of methods researchers use to obtain information on episodic phenomena in specific sport and exercise activities. Third, we provide guidance on how the event-focused interview method can be implemented, using illustrative examples from several recent event-focused interview studies. Fourth, to guide researchers in future, we identify some methodological dilemmas and considerations for applying this method. We conclude by outlining several methodological avenues that could be employed in future event-focused interview studies. Overall, we propose that the event-focused interview method may be a promising addition to the collection of methods available to researchers interested in generating new theoretical and practical knowledge about episodic phenomena in sport and exercise.

Covid-19 versus Physical Activity in the Context of University Students

PURPOSE: The aim of the paper is to present the results of a recent research survey (February 2021) in a broader context of the issue to determine whether university students devote themselves as much as possible to specific sports and physical activities even at the time of the ongoing pandemic associated with the spread of COVID-19, i.e. at a time when the possibilities of sports and physical activities are limited, and the contact Physical Education lessons (hereinafter referred to as PE) are cancelled at schools.METHODS: To meet the objectives of the research survey, the method of questioning – an online questionnaire – was chosen. The total number of the university students who were addressed was 1164, 530 first-year students from all seven faculties of VSB – Technical University of Ostrava (hereinafter referred to as VSB-TUO) answered. The questionnaires were subjected to the statistical classification of the first-level data. Another method was the comparative method of working with documents, comparing with the results of comparable questionnaire surveys from 2015 and 2018, and relevant scientific discussion in this contestRESULTS: The results of the research confirmed that first-year students of all VSB-TUO faculties, who as graduates of the relevant secondary school could no longer complete the subject Physical Education due to pandemic measures, preferred unorganized physical activities in accordance with the situation, such as walks, including walking the dog. 34.8% of respondents answered that they “did not miss sport” or that they “were not interested in sport at all”. A high percentage of respondents (44.3%) admitted that they “did not miss” organized Physical Education lessons “at all”, while some (31.3%) stated that thanks to the subject Physical Education, they were able to play sports “at least once a week”.CONCLUSION: Due to the high number of interviewed first-year students of VSB-TUO, it can be assumed that we would reach similar results in a vast population of peers, and the findings can be generalized. The study summarizes the latest reflections on impersonal forms of teaching of Physical Education on the motivation and intensity of sports and physical activities within the general level of foreign surveys as well. Relevant research in our cultural setting coincidently conclude indispensable importance of growing role of regular physical activity in the field of school, family and leisure including its attractive innovation during lock down pandemic situation.

THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT AS A TOOL FOR PUBLIC DIPLOMACY OF THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA: PROBLEMS OF FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

The article analyzes the process of institutionalization of the Olympic Movement in the Republic of Moldova, as well as the formation of the normative base of great achievement sport and its role as an instrument of foreign policy and a factor of soft power of the Moldovan State. In this regard, the author examines the continuity in the development of sports, in accordance with the two historical and political periods of the Moldovan statehood - "Soviet" and "Post-Soviet", through a comparative analysis of specific sports achievements. In this context, the author examines the main reasons for the slowdown in the development of the Olympic movement, including through the prism of content analysis the leaders of this structure, as well as the admission of systemic errors associated with insufficient funding of Moldovan sports, the lack of a legal framework for sponsoring performance sports, and the loss of the system for training highly qualified coaches.

Analyzing Research Trends in Marine Sport Industry and Future Directions

The purpose of the present study was to analyze research articles on marine sports depending on research time period, research types, research topics, and research methods and to discuss future research directions in the field of marine sports based on the analysis. The current study collected 338 research articles related to marine sport, which were published in domestic academic journals from 2012 to 2021. Bibliometric analysis was performed to analyze the collected research articles. The major results were as follows. First, the overall temporal trend of publications indicated linear increase. Second, the majority of research was conducted by a single or two authors in marine sport research. Third, with respect to research type trends, the present study found that descriptive research took the greatest portion of research types. Meanwhile, researchers tend to rely on regression analysis, structural equations modeling (SEM), and analysis of variance to test their research hypotheses. In terms of research tier trends, the present study found that the majority of research had been published in academic journals indexed by Korean Citation Index (KCI). The results of analysis of research areas indicated that the number of publications in humanities and social sciences was greater the one in sport sciences. Lastly, the current study found that the majority of research pay tremendous attention to the topics of overall marine sport industry rather than specific marine sport activities. Based on the discussion on the results, several future directions for marine sport research were suggested.

Does the Type of Sport Influence Morphology of the Hip? A Systematic Review

Background: Femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) has been extensively investigated and is strongly associated with athletic participation. Purpose: To assess (1) the prevalence of cam-type FAI across various sports; (2) whether kinematic variation among sports influences hip morphology; and (3) whether performance level, duration, and frequency of participation or other factors influence hip morphology in a sporting population. Study Design: Systematic review; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: A systematic search of Embase, PubMed, and the Cochrane Library was undertaken following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. Prospective and retrospective case series, case reports, and review articles published after 1999 were screened, and those that met the inclusion criteria decided a priori were included for analysis. Results: The literature search identified 58 relevant articles involving 5683 participants. A total of 49 articles described a higher prevalence of FAI across various “hip-heavy” sports, including soccer, basketball, baseball, ice hockey, skiing, golf, and ballet. In studies including nonathlete controls, a greater prevalence of FAI was reported in 66.7% of studies (n = 8/12). The highest alpha angle was identified at the 1-o’clock position (n = 9/9) in football, skiing, golf, ice hockey, and basketball. The maximum alpha angle was located in a more lateral position in goalkeepers versus positional players in ice hockey (1 vs 1:45 o’clock). A positive correlation was also identified between the alpha angle and both age and activity level (n = 5/8 and n = 2/3, respectively) and between prevalence of FAI and both age and activity level (n = 2/2 and n = 4/5). Conclusion: Hip-heavy sports show an increased prevalence of FAI, with specific sporting activities influencing hip morphology. There is some evidence to suggest that a longer duration and higher level of training also result in an increased prevalence of FAI. Registration: CRD4202018001 (PROSPERO).

English

Introduction: The process of return to sport after injury, has traditionally been approached in 2 separate stages; first the athlete is treated the medical service through conventional rehabilitation processes and is then referred to the sports team (coach and / or physical trainer) who complete the return to the sport activity. This approach may lack communication and coordination between both teams and may be insufficient for the demands of the current sports environment, causing longer processes of return to sport and greater risk of re-injury. The objective of this manuscript is to document the current models of return to sport, its stages, objectives and contents. Material and method: A comprehensive review of publications was carried out, including observational studies, clinical trials, reviews, consensus, systematic reviews and meta-analysis, related to treatment, rehabilitation, readaptation and return to sport. Results: The description of a model of return to sports of gradual progression that includes 3 stages was found: return to participation, readaptation to sport and return to maximum sports performance. The stage of return to participation aims to eliminate the symptoms and regain the functionality of the athlete in their non-sports activities, through conventional rehabilitation processes. The stage of readaptation to sport aims to achieve asymptomatic performance of training and competition activities, through the rehabilitation of deficiencies caused by the injury and the maintenance and / or development of motor skills with modified training. The stage of return to maximum sports performance includes specific sports training to reach the level of performance prior to the injury. Conclusions: This model could be associated with greater success in returning to sports activity and lower risk of recurrence of the injury.

Stress Responses, Competition, and Free-Throw Performance: The Predicting Role of Other-Approach Goals.

Experimental stress paradigms have been little used in the sport psychology literature because they are unrelated to the specific sport task. The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) was used in the present study to investigate its influence on the free-throw performance of skilled basketball players. We also investigated the influence of adopting other-approach goals (i.e., doing well relative to others) on free-throw performance when basketball players were placed in a competition immediately after the TSST, comparatively with a control condition without competition. The results showed that free-throw performance decreased in the control condition, while free-throw performance remained stable when the TSST was followed by a competition. They also highlighted that other-approach goals were significant positive predictors of post-TSST performance in the competition condition but not in the control condition. The TSST may now be used with skilled athletes as an experimental stress paradigm to induce acute stress in the sport domain.

The Learning in Development Research Framework for sports organizations

ABSTRACT Research has shown how social and cultural factors continually shape an athlete’s development journey. For example, the types of practice designed, in which individuals are identified as talented and the characteristics that distinguish a good coach, are continually shaped by sociocultural constraints. This potential for a myriad of possible complex and ill-defined challenges (a wicked problem), highlights a need for a framework to guide both research and practice within specific sports organizations. In this paper, we present the Learning in Development Research Framework (LDRF), a deeply contextualized, transdisciplinary approach to action research that is founded in ecological dynamics that utilizes the Skilled Intentionality Framework (SIF) to capture the role of sociocultural forces in shaping athlete development. Further, we present a practical example from a professional football club highlighting the main aim of the LDRF: that player development frameworks should evolve in, interaction with the specific sociocultural context in which practitioners and individuals are embedded. The implication is that there are no ‘copy and paste’ templates. Practitioners and applied scientists should seek to comprehend the distinct contextual complexities of cultures, communities and situations as they encounter them, co-creating practices that, respectively, amplify and dampen helpful and unhelpful aspects of sport forms of life.

Early Sport Specialization.

Early sport specialization has been recognized as a potential factor in the relationship between physical activity and health since the early 1970s. There is no universally agreed-upon terminology or definition for early sport specialization, but early sport specialization typically encompasses preteen athletes who play 1 sport competitively throughout the year or play on several teams within 1 season, leading to intensive participation without variation in physical activity. There is a limited number of comprehensive long-term outcome studies that have identified a potential link between early sport specialization and musculoskeletal injury or burnout. Methodologically sound prospective research looking at chronologic age and years of participation by sports played will help to answer whether there is an impact from early sport specialization on the relationship with successful participation and injury occurrence.

Practical Strategies for Integrating Strength and Conditioning Into Early Specialization Sports

ABSTRACT Early sport specialization involves physically immature children participating in intensive year-round training and/or competition for a single sport. The lack of sport exposure and diversification during the developmental years may underlie the increased risk of overuse injuries, blunting of motor skill development, psychosocial issues, overtraining syndrome, burnout, and potential dropout from sport. With increasing number of youth choosing, or being encouraged, to specialize at an early age, we aim to provide evidence-based recommendations for the integration of strength and conditioning into the development programs of young athletes who participate in sports with a culture of early specialization. In addition to the principles of programming, strategies are provided relative to monitoring of growth, maturation, and training load to illustrate the potential complexities of attempting to optimize long-term athletic development in early specializing athletes.

Associations of Vitamin D Levels with Physical Fitness and Motor Performance; A Cross-Sectional Study in Youth Soccer Players from Southern Croatia.

Simple SummaryVitamin D is a fat-soluble prohormone crucial for bone mineralization, muscle contractility, and neurological conductivity. It is theorized that Vitamin D plays an important role in sport performances, especially in young athletes. In this study we examined the associations of levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) with physical fitness and motor-performance achievements in youth soccer players from Southern Croatia. Participants were tested on physical fitness, motor performance and vitamin D at the end of the winter period, when levels of vitamin D are known to be lowest due to low exposure to sunlight. Results showed that deficiency of 25(OH)D was widespread among youth soccer players living in Southern Croatia. Low 25(OH)D levels were associated with lower results in fitness tests (i.e., tests of energetic capacities), but there was no correlation between 25(OH)D levels and the results in motor performance tests (i.e., skill tests). Our results support the theory of the association between vitamin D and energetic capacities of athletes, but there is no evidence on association between vitamin D and skill-based capacities.Vitamin D level is known to be a factor potentially influencing physical fitness, but few studies have examined this phenomenon among youth athletes. We aimed to evaluate the associations of vitamin D levels (as measured by 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations—25(OH)D) with various physical fitness and motor performance tests in youth football (soccer) players. This cross-sectional study included a total of 52 youth soccer players (15.98 ± 2.26 years old) from Southern Croatia. The participants were evaluated at the end of the winter period and data were collected of anthropometric measures (body mass and body height), vitamin D status (25(OH)D levels), physical fitness tests (sprints of 10 and 20 m, 20 yards test, the countermovement jump, the reactive strength index (RSI)) and motor performance tests (the soccer-specific CODS, the soccer-specific agility, and static balance). Among the studied players, 54% had 25(OH)D insufficiency/deficiency, showing a lack of 25(OH)D is widespread even in youth athletes living at a southern latitude. The 25(OH)D level was correlated with sprint 20 m, 20 yards tests, and RSI, showing a greater role of 25(OH)D in physical fitness tests where energetic capacity is essential than in sport-related motor performance tests where skills are crucial. Our results support the idea that vitamin D can play a determinant role in physical fitness tests with a clear physiological component, but is not crucial in motor performance tests related to specific sports where skills are a key component. Future studies should investigate the effects of vitamin D supplementation on the performance in physical fitness and motor performance tests among youth athletes.

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Beliefs of Parents of Youth Basketball Players Regarding Sport Specialization and College Scholarship Availability.

Background:Previous surveys of youth sport parents have revealed that while parents believe early sport specialization is beneficial for improving sport ability, they also overestimate their child’s chances of receiving a college scholarship.Purpose:To (1) describe knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of parents of youth basketball players regarding sport specialization and college scholarships and (2) examine potential differences in child basketball participation characteristics based on parent income.Study Design:Cross-sectional study.Methods:A total of 805 parents (mean age, 39.9 ± 7.1 years; 353 female [43.9%]) of youth basketball players (mean age, 12.9 ± 2.5 years; 241 female [29.9%]) were recruited via Qualtrics Online Panels to complete an anonymous online questionnaire. Participants were required to be a parent of a child between 8 and 18 years of age who participated in organized youth basketball (ie, school, club, or recreational/local league). Participants were recruited to be nationally representative with regard to race/ethnicity (White, 62.7%; Hispanic/Latino of any race, 15.3%; African American/Black, 13.3%; Asian, 4.6%; ≥2 races, 2.9%; American Indian/Alaskan Native, 1.1%; Native Hawaiian/other Pacific Islander, 0.1%). The questionnaire was adapted from previous research on parent knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs and consisted of 3 sections: (1) parent and child characteristics; (2) child basketball participation information (months per year of basketball participation, sport specialization status, receiving private coaching, traveling regularly for basketball competitions, participating on multiple teams at the same time); and (3) parent attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge regarding sport specialization and college basketball scholarships.Results:Most parents believed specialization increased their child’s chances of making a high school (71.4%) or college team (69.7%). Parents underestimated the availability of college basketball scholarships at the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) Division I and II levels (8.9 ± 5.1 vs reality of 13-15 per team) but overestimated availability at the Division III level (8.6 ± 5.7 vs reality of 0 per team). High-income parents spent significantly more money ($4748 USD [$1214-$10,246]) than middle-income ($2250 USD [$727-$5079]; P < .001) and low-income ($1043 USD [$368-$2444]; P < .001) parents.Conclusion:Parents believed specialization was important for sport success, but they underestimated college scholarship availability at the NCAA Division I and II levels while overestimating scholarship availability at the Division III level.

An extension of the internal/external frame of reference model to the physical domain: Are there contrasting and assimilating achievement-self-concept relations in specific sports?

Based upon a sample of 289 sports science students (Mage = 24.68; SD = 2.68), the present cross-sectional study aimed to examine the internal/external frame of reference model with grades and self-concepts in three individual sports (i.e., swimming, gymnastics, athletics) and three team sports (i.e., soccer, handball, basketball). Students reported their grades and self-concepts in the six sports in paper-and-pencil questionnaires during their courses at university. Results of factor analysis provided strong support for the expected 6-factor structure. Correlation analysis and structural equation modeling showed that all six grades were significantly positively related to self-concepts within each sport. Furthermore, there were significantly negative achievement-self-concept relations of (a) grade in gymnastics to self-concepts in soccer and basketball, (b) grade in swimming to self-concept in athletics, and (c) grade in basketball to self-concepts in gymnastics, athletics, and soccer. In contrast, no significantly positive achievement-self-concept relations across the six sports were found. These results indicate that sports science students perceive specific sports as quite dissimilar and mainly use contrasting dimensional comparisons when evaluating their skills in specific sports. University teachers should thus attempt to reduce those negative contrasting comparisons to enhance sports science students' self-concepts in specific sports.

Field Hockey Skill Tests Construction and Validation on Female Hockey Players

Hockey is a team-game in which the different players have to perform the different types of skills to overcome the opponent, each members of team have to perform best, to achieve success. In any sports discipline assessment of player can be done by subjective or objective means. Skill tests of relevant sports discipline helps in the objective assessment of the player. Sports skill tests are designed to measure the basic skills used in the playing of a specific sport. The degree of perfection of sport skills obviously varies significantly with the level and gender of the players. The mastery of the fundamental skills in any game results in the high level performance. Norms are necessary if the test scores are to be adequately interpreted. The type of test is selected depending upon the purpose of the test and characteristics of the group to be tested. ” The aim of the present study was to construct and standardize the fundamental skill tests for the game of field hockey which contribute towards performance of the players. The objectives of the study measures the selected skills and performance and further establishing validity, reliability and objectivity the selected skill. Also the percentile norms and Hull scale for selected skill tests was constructed for field hockey female players. The study is delimited to 5 skills hitting, pushing, dribbling, passing and stopping, also female hockey players of inter-college level age ranged between 17 to 25 years with average age of 21years were selected. The data collected were subjected to various statistical analysis. Product Moment Correlation was used to find out inter – relationship among all the skill test items, Factor Analysis was applied in which, significant factors responsible for variance and dominant were extracted through Principal Component Analysis, The reliability of the filtered skill test items was computed by test retest method and Finally norms were developed using percentiles and Hull Scale. “ The result reveals that there was inter-relationship between the performances of selected test items. The knowledge evolved in this study is directly helpful to coaches, trainers, trainees and teachers of Hockey and also selection committee of Field Hockey at different levels. This contribution will enrich the overall game performance in Indian Field Hockey. Keywords: Field Hockey, Norms, Performance, Skills DOI: 10.7176/JTHS/58-02 Publication date: August 31 st 2021

Factors Associated With Achilles Tendon Rupture in Women's Collegiate Gymnastics.

Achilles injury risk in women's collegiate gymnastics is 10-fold higher than in all other collegiate sports. This study aims to identify risk factors for Achilles tendon ruptures in collegiate female gymnasts. Gymnasts with Achilles tendon ruptures will be more likely to report early gymnastics specialization, elite-level training before college, and performance of high-difficulty skills on floor and vault. Cross-sectional study. Level 4. Anonymous surveys were distributed to current and former collegiate female gymnasts, aged 18 to 30 years, via coaches, athletic trainers, Twitter, and ResearchMatch. Information about Achilles tendon ruptures, gymnastics-related injuries, sport specialization, event/skills participation, and medication use were collected. A total of 581 gymnasts were included. One hundred gymnasts (17.2%; 95% CI: 14.1%-20.3%) reported Achilles tendon ruptures during collegiate training or competition. Most ruptures (91%) occurred on floor exercise; 85.7% of these occurred during back tumbling-take-off. Compared with gymnasts without ruptures during college, a greater percentage of gymnasts with ruptures competed at a Division I program, trained elite, competed difficult vaults and floor passes before and during college, competed in all 4 events during college, identified as Black/African American, and used retinoid medications. Achilles tendon ruptures are more common in women's collegiate gymnastics than other sports. Competing at the elite level, performing difficult floor and vault skills, and competing in all 4 events may increase the risk for an Achilles tendon rupture. Potential nontraining risk factors include retinoid exposure and Black/African American race. Future studies regarding the mechanisms of Achilles tendon ruptures in female collegiate gymnasts are warranted. Collegiate gymnasts who compete at the elite level, perform high levels of difficulty on floor and vault, and compete in all 4 events may be at increased risk for Achilles tendon ruptures.

Sport Specialization and Quality of Life among Middle- and High-School Long-Distance Runners of Different Injury Status: A Retrospective Study

ABSTRACT Running-related injuries are prevalent in adolescent long-distance runners. The aim of our retrospective study was to compare differences in sport specialization, running habits,quality of life, and sleep habits among middle-and high-school long-distance runners of different injury statuses. Middle- and high-school long-distance runners across the United States were recruited via cross-country coaches and athletic directors between January and May 2020. Participants completed an online survey with questions related to demographics, sport specialization, running habits, quality of life, sleep, and self-reported injury history. Overall, 306 participants completed the survey (male = 107, female = 176, unspecified = 23; age = 15.7 ± 1.1 years). Of the participants, 178 (58.2%) reported no history of injury, 101 (33.0%) reported a previous injury, and 27 (8.8%) reported a current injury. Middle- and high-school runners with a current injury reported significantly lower overall health (p= .01) and average distance per run (p = .05) than uninjured runners. No significant differences were found among injury status and sport specialization level, quality of life, sleep habits, or running volume (p> .05). Runners with a self-reported previous or current injury do not appear to be classified as high-specialized runners more frequently than uninjured runners.