Specific Leadership Behaviors Research Articles

Leadership in context: investigating hierarchical impacts on transformational leadership

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to empirically investigate hierarchical impacts on specific transformational leadership (TFL) behaviors (i.e. idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration).Design/methodology/approachSurvey data on TFL, job satisfaction, and hierarchy were collected from 448 managers from a multinational corporation in Sweden.FindingsIdealized influence and inspirational motivation occurred more frequently among upper rather than middle managers, while there were no differences for intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Also, idealized influence, inspirational motivation, and intellectual stimulation were more effective in strengthening subordinates' job satisfaction among upper rather than middle managers, while individualized consideration was similarly effective in both groups.Research limitations/implicationsThe cross‐sectional research design precludes causal conclusions and potentially allows for common method bias. With the main research interest pertaining to hierarchical differences in TFL, however, method bias seems unlikely to fully account for the results.Practical implicationsStudy results emphasize the necessity to strengthen TFL on lower managerial levels. Organizations might achieve this by cutting administrative constraints and empowering lower level leaders.Originality/valueThe study addresses repeated calls for a consideration of contextual factors in TFL research. It points to the role of hierarchy as a boundary condition of TFL.

What type of leadership behaviors are functional in teams? A meta-analysis

Despite the increased work on leadership in teams, there is a lack of integration concerning the relationship between leader behaviors and team performance outcomes. A framework depicting the relationship between leadership functions, specific leadership behaviors, and conditions which enable team performance was created. Using this framework, a meta-analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between leadership behavior in teams and behaviorally-based team performance outcomes. Results suggest the use of task-focused behaviors is moderately related to perceived team effectiveness and team productivity (.333, .203). Person-focused behaviors were related to perceived team effectiveness (.360), team productivity (.284), and team learning (.560). Sub-group analyses indicated that the specific leadership behaviors investigated were generally related to team performance outcomes. Most notably, empowerment behaviors accounted for nearly 30% of the variance in team learning. Finally, moderator analyses investigating the level of task interdependence were conducted. Study limitations, practical implications, and directions for research are also outlined.

A theory of leadership for quality: Lessons from TQM for leadership theory1

Despite their implications for the management of quality in organizations, leadership theories have not explicitly focused on quality and on the role of leaders as managers of quality. Building on recent attempts in the leadership and total quality management literatures, this article develops a theory of leadership for quality, focusing on leader traits, values, and behaviours based on underlying TQM principles. Contributions of the TQM literature to the leadership literature are identified and discussed. A set of leader traits, values, and behaviours are extracted from the TQM philosophy and integrated into an articulation of a theory of leadership based on these constructs. The core principles of TQM are addressed and a number of propositions are developed, identifying both generic and specific leader behaviours in the domains of customer focus, teamwork and participation, and continuous improvement. The theory developed here makes incremental contributions by examining these hitherto unexamined behaviours in the leadership literature. The framework adds value to the literature by embedding key leadership constructs in organizational processes. Contributions to the TQM and leadership literature, limitations of the approach, and implications for research and practice are discussed.

Support and training needs of cancer support group leaders: a review

This review focuses on the support and training needs of cancer support group leaders. With an increasing popularity of support groups and growing evidence of the crucial role of group leaders in positive patient outcomes, there is an imperative to identify ways of promoting these outcomes and preventing leader burnout, an issue contributing to the demise of some support groups. Despite this, there is a paucity of research in this area. Available research data clearly illustrates that both professional and peer support group leaders recognise their need for better support, training and information. One study of health professionals identified a need for more advanced skills involved in group processes and specific issues such as dealing with the death of members. Specific leader behaviours, in particular active intervention in group interactions and supportive care, have also been associated with improved patient quality of life. To date, there is no clear evidence as to how best to achieve and support these effective group leader skills. While many cancer societies and other associations provide introductory training and information kits about 'how to start a support group,' no advanced training or support interventions are available. Further research is needed to provide an evidence base for group leader training and to evaluate the impact of such training on both leader and patient outcomes.

Bringing humility to leadership: Antecedents and consequences of leader humility

As noted by McGill and Slocum (1998), effective leadership tends to operate as a contingency theory. The romanticized notion of celebrity CEOs that has been lionized in the popular business press has its place in the leadership pantheon, but, like any other approach to leadership, has limitations in its application. In particular, as discussed by Collins (2001a), sustained organizational functioning is more likely to be the result of the celebrity’s antithesis, a person possessing a blend of humility and strong personal will. This article draws from a diversity of sources in order to explore this potential nexus between humility and leadership. It offers a precise conceptualization of the concept of humility, identifies traits that are predictors of humility as well as the specific leadership behaviors that are likely to be the outcomes of high levels of humility.

A Theory of Team Coaching

After briefly reviewing the existing literature on team coaching, we propose a new model with three distinguishing features. The model (1) focuses on the functions that coaching serves for a team, rather than on either specific leader behaviors or leadership styles, (2) identifies the specific times in the task performance process when coaching interventions are most likely to have their intended effects, and (3) explicates the conditions under which team-focused coaching is and is not likely to facilitate performance.

Examining effective technology project leadership traits and behaviors

Effective project team leadership theory is explored from the perspective of leader traits, skills, roles, and behaviors. Existing leadership traits and behaviors are examined from organization science empirical studies, they are differentiated from management functions, and the gap between extant theory and the project management domain is highlighted through this research. Leadership principles are examined from actual organizational work settings, specifically dynamic projects, with a view to discovering what actually happens as compared with espoused theory. The underlying research question is whether these theories hold up and can be effectively integrated to the project management domain. The significance of leadership behavior differences at the project and organizational levels is grounded on empirical evidence. The reflection of integrated organizational science and project leadership theory using qualitative and quantitative research methods contributes to the body of knowledge by sharing and learning in professional and academic communities of practice. Design/methodology/approach. Contemporary and alternative trait-based leadership theories are discussed, such as task/relationship orientations, emotionality maturity, Leadership Virtual Reality, Level 5 Leader Trait Hierarchy, charisma, emotional maturity, and personality traits are discussed. Multiple theories and typologies such as Managerial Roles, Leadership Roles Model, and Competing Values Framework, as well as the Meta-Category Leadership Taxonomy are explained using models, diagrams, and matrices. Theoretically sampled case studies are analyzed using several typologies to explore leadership behavior and traits across leaders in different projects and organizations. Participant assessments and 360° peer reviews are triangulated with qualitative and quantitative statistical measures to test hypotheses and analyze correlation between leader skills, traits, and behaviors across their projects. Findings and research value. This research identified a gap between extant organizational leadership theory and applied leadership behavior in effective projects. The preliminary results are surprising in a few cases but they generally support the proposition that effective leadership behaviors in any context are partly explained by leader traits, skills, and personality. The most unusual finding was these projects actually show that leadership principles from management science are not universally applicable (observable) in effective and efficient projects – instead the project leaders exhibited self-management theory and applied specific leader behaviors according to the situation. These findings, albeit on a small statistical scale of global significance, are a catalyst for continued and broader reflective leadership research using case study methods and hypotheses replication with these constructs.

Leadership and co-operation in orchestras

The leadership of musicians by the conductor of an orchestra is a combination of authority and charisma. It is a special case of directive-charismatic leadership that needs to be explained because it involves substantive restriction of freedom for the led, whereas in other creative fields (e.g. research and development) a non-directive style of leadership is considered functional to success. Current theory on leadership (e.g. contingency theory) is not able to explain this phenomenon. We develop a model of leadership in the orchestra, from which a specific (directive-charismatic) leader behavior is to be derived from the singularities of this leadership goal and the behavior required of followers. On the basis of a sample of n=334 musicians from thirty German orchestras, we show empirically that directive-charismatic leadership in the orchestra has a positive impact on the quality of ensemble playing, thus promoting artistic quality as leadership success. Conclusions are drawn both for leadership theory and for the selection and training of orchestral musicians and conductors.

Self-sacrificial behavior in crisis situations: The competing roles of behavioral and situational factors

As charismatic and transformational leadership theories have broadened their perspective to include situational factors (i.e., crisis), it is important to understand how specific leader behaviors might interact with such situations. Recently, Choi and Mai-Dalton [Leadersh. Q. 10 (1999) 397; Leadersh. Q. 9 (1998) 475] have given both empirical and theoretical attention to the behavior of self-sacrifice, which is an important facet of both Transformational [Organ. Dyn. 13 (1985) 26] and Charismatic Leadership Theories [Acad. Manage. Rev. 12 (1987) 637; House, R. J. (1977). A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership. In J. G. Hunt & L. L. Larson (Eds.), Leadership: The cutting edge (pp. 189–207). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press]. The present experimental study investigates the effects of self-sacrificial behavior, along with the effects of situational crisis on followers' perceptions of their leader's charisma and organizational commitment. Leaders are perceived particularly well when exhibiting self-sacrificial behavior in times of crisis.

Leader behaviors and the work environment for creativity: Perceived leader support

This exploratory study investigated leader behaviors related to perceived leader support, encompassing both instrumental and socioemotional support. The study first established that leader support, proposed to be a key feature of the work environment for creativity, was positively related to the peer-rated creativity of subordinates working on creative projects in seven different companies. Then, to identify the specific leader behaviors that might give rise to perceived support, two qualitative analyses were conducted on daily diary narratives written by these subordinates. The first, which focused on specific leader behaviors that had significantly predicted leader support in a preliminary quantitative analysis, illuminated both effective and ineffective forms of leader behavior. In addition, it revealed not only subordinate perceptual reactions to this behavior (their perceptions of leader support), but affective reactions as well. The second qualitative analysis focused on the behavior of two extreme team leaders in context over time, revealing both positive and negative spirals of leader behavior, subordinate reactions, and subordinate creativity.

Effective leadership in the Mexican maquiladora: challenging common expectations

This article reports a cross-cultural study of Mexican and U.S. leaders in Mexican maquiladoras. The research builds on relational demography to determine if leader ethnicity, regional Mexican culture, and organizational affiliation moderate the impact of leadership behavior on important organizational outcomes. We examined the impacts of specific leader behaviors on follower attitudes and performance. Contrary to expectations from the current cross-cultural leadership literature, managerial leaders from the United States had approximately the same effects on the Mexican workforce as managerial leaders from Mexico. However, regional differences within Mexico and organizational affiliation were significant moderators. We postulate that there are at least two leader prototypes in Mexico: the “transitional” leader and the more “traditional” leader. Additional implications of these findings for leadership in Mexico are discussed.

The perceptions of expert coaches about effective leadership in sport

Research on effective leadership in sport has identified a number of characteristics and situations that impact on coaching effectiveness. These include coach effect on athlete satisfaction and performance, self-esteem and trait anxiety. This research has focused on athletes' perceptions of or preferences for specific leadership behaviors and actual coach behaviors identified by observing coaches. Few studies have recognized the views of the expert coach as a potentially valuable source of information regarding effective leadership and the coaching process. The present study investigated expert coaches' perception and interpretation of the leadership process. Twenty successful coaches working with Australian junior elite sport participants were purposefully sampled to cover a diversity of sports (team and individual) and provide a gender balance across sports. Through in-depth interviews, based on Grounded Theory, the study examined three aspects of coaching, which provided the basis of the interview guide. These were coaching history and influences, effective coaching behaviors, and coach training and accreditation. Eight major themes emerged: (a) influence of history on coaching behaviors, (b) knowledge of the sport, (c) pedagogy skills, (d) coaches' personal qualities, (e) coach-athlete relationships, (f) coaches' evaluation of the athlete, (g) coach and athlete outcomes, and (h) enjoyment of the coaching process. The results highlight the important role coaches play in future coach development, the impact of coach self-efficacy attributed to athlete self-efficacy, and how coach-related outcomes drive the coaching process. These results have noteworthy implications for coach education programs.

THE INFLUENCE OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON FOLLOWERS' RELATIONAL VERSUS COLLECTIVE SELF-CONCEPT.

In this paper we develop a conceptual framework for understanding the exceptional and diverse effects transformational leaders may have on their followers by integrating recent theories on followers' self-concept, and transformational leadership theory. We propose that transformational leadership exerts its effects by engaging two levels of follower's social-self concepts: the relational self and the collective self, leading to followers' personal identification with the leader and social identification with the organizational unit. Specific leader's behaviors that prime different aspects of followers' self-concepts are identified and their possible effects on different aspects of followers' perceptions and behaviors are discussed.

Napoleon's tragic march home from Moscow: Lessons in hubris

Executive Overview Throughout history, hubris has been cited as a common reason for leadership failure. One of the more famous examples of hubris at work was Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812, in which he lost his army and empire. The authors examine the consequences of both Napoleon's hubris and the hubris of contemporary business executives. Among the managerial behaviors that may reflect hubris are making unsound and over-priced corporate acquisitions, pursuing growth for its own sake, and knowingly violating the standards of acceptable conduct. Using historical material on Napoleon as well as contemporary business examples, we examine the causes of hubris and specific leader behaviors that are likely to result. Guidelines for reducing the incidence of hubris are suggested.

The ties that bind: The impact of leader-member exchange, transformational and transactional leadership, and distance on predicting follower performance.

The authors examined the linkages between leader-member exchange (LMX), transformational and transactional leadership, and physical distance in predicting performance of 317 followers over a 1-year period. Results from a partial least squares analysis revealed that LMX was related positively to transformatio nal and contingent reward leadership and negatively to management-by -exception. LMX and active management-by-exception positively predicted follower performance, and physical distance moderated leadership-performance relationships. Transformational leadership produced significantly higher follower performance in close versus distant situations, whereas LMX produced high follower performance irrespective of physical distance between leaders and followers. Interest in leadership in complex organizations is characterized by the parallel development of two different perspectives. One viewpoint is leader-focused. This stream of research attempts to explain individual, group, or organizational performance outcomes by analyzing specific leader behaviors and linking them directly to those outcomes. Examples of such perspectives include transformational, charismatic, and value-based theories of leadership, as developed by Bass (1985), House (1977), and House, Delbecq, and Taris (1996), respectively. In contrast, the second perspective focuses on the explicit one-on-one relationships that develop between leader and follower. Adherents of this perspective propose a link between follower performance and the quality and level of mutual trust, respect, and influence within those individual leader-follower relationships. The best example of this perspective is the leadermember exchange (LMX) theory of leadership originated

Leader behavior impact on staff nurse empowerment, job tension, and work effectiveness.

The authors tested a model linking specific leader-empowering behaviors to staff nurse perceptions of workplace empowerment, occupational stress, and work effectiveness in a recently-merged Canadian acute care hospital. An integration of Kanter's organizational empowerment theory and Conger and Kunungo's model of the leader empowerment process constituted the theoretical framework for the study. Few published studies were found in which specific leader behaviors were linked empirically to staff nurses' workplace empowerment. Staff nurses (n = 537) were surveyed shortly after a merger of two large tertiary hospitals. Structural equation modeling techniques were used to test the proposed model. Leader-empowering behaviors significantly influenced employees perceptions of formal and informal power and access to empowerment structures (information support, resources, and opportunity). Higher perceived access to empowerment structures predicted lower levels of job tension and increased work effectiveness. The amount of explained variance in the final model was 42%. Support for the model tested in this study highlights the importance of nurse managers' leadership behaviors within current turbulent healthcare organizations.

Leadership challenges for smaller organisations: Self-perceptions of TQM implementation

This paper addresses a gap in the TQM (Total Quality Management) literature by providing empirical data on differences in implementation practice associated with organisational size. It also goes further than is usual down the well-trodden path of TQM success and failure, by examining senior executives' associated attitudes to and perceptions of TQM. The results from 113 TQM organisations suggest that small organisations display significantly poorer levels of understanding of the purpose of TQM and its true nature as a strategic approach to customers and the market environment. They also appear less knowledgeable about their customers' satisfaction levels and are more likely to believe that TQM has had a marginal impact on their business. The importance of such research into TQM in small firms is underlined, especially in the context of peripheral regions and also on the basis of the TQM tenet of supplier-customer partnerships. Based on the work of Argyris, it is hypothesised that these attitudes and perceptions should in theory be mirrored by specific leadership behaviours, but in practice certain inconsistencies should emerge which betray a less optimistic picture of leadership in small organisations. The paper lays the foundation for these assertions to be explored more fully in a follow-up paper.

Leadership in Western and Asian countries: Commonalities and differences in effective leadership processes across cultures

While the phenomenon of leadership is widely considered to be universal across cultures, the way in which it is operationalized is usually viewed as culturally specific. Conflicting viewpoints exist in the leadership literature concerning the transferability of specific leader behaviors and processes across cultures. This study explored these conflicting views for managers and professional workers by empirically testing specific hypotheses which addressed the generalizability of leadership behaviors and processes across five nations in North America and Asia. Confirmatory factor analyses provided evidence for conceptual and measurement equivalence for all six leader behaviors employed in the study. The findings showed cultural universality for three leader behaviors (supportive, contingent reward, and charismatic), and cultural specificity for the remaining three leader behaviors (directive, participative, and contingent punishment).

Connecting the preparation of school leaders to the practice of school leadership

This article is predicated on the assumption that the behaviors that characterize the practice of school leadership should be the focus of the training programs for educational leaders. To understand the link between preparation and practice of school leaders, we first need to look at what is meant by the term educational leadership. Only by becoming aware of what a leader is can we begin to study what characteristics must be developed in training programs to assure that these characteristics are reflected later in school leadership behaviors. After looking at some commonly accepted definitions of leadership, this article identifies specific leadership behaviors that are hypothesized to be directly related to these definitions. Next, a brief description is given of college and university preparation programs for school leadership, including a historical account of their changing nature. And finally, an example is offered of a key element that is common to both educational leadership

Leader behavior, timing, type, and faculty acceptance of changes initiated by new deans.

To determine the pace and magnitude of change with which a new dean must cope and the effect of change on faculty, leader behavior, timing, type, and faculty acceptance of change in schools of nursing were examined in research, doctorate-granting, comprehensive, and liberal arts universities and colleges. An exploratory descriptive design was used. Results indicated that deans in the four categories of universities initiated changes with different frequencies. Most changes studied were initiated with greater frequency in the first year of the new dean's position, two more frequently in the second year, and two with equal frequency in both years. Three changes were more favorably accepted in the second year. Sensitive interpersonal changes related directly to faculty were accepted less favorably than all other categories of change. No specific leader behavior was significantly associated with faculty acceptance of change.