Specific Identity Research Articles

Social excluder's face reduces gaze-triggered attention orienting.

Social ostracism, a negative affective experience in interpersonal interactions, is thought to modulate the gaze-cueing effect (GCE). However, it is unclear whether the impact of social exclusion on the GCE is related to the identity of the cueing face. Therefore, the present study employed a two-phase paradigm to address this issue. In the first phase, two groups of participants were instructed to complete a Cyberball game with two virtual avatars to establish a binding relationship between a specific face's identity and the emotions of social exclusion or inclusion. In the second phase, these two virtual avatars (exclusion faces/inclusion faces) and two new faces (control faces) were used as cueing faces in the gaze-cueing task. The results found that, for the exclusion group, the magnitudes of the GCEs for the exclusion and exclusion-control faces were similar in the 200 ms stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) condition, while the exclusion face's GCE was significantly smaller than that of the exclusion-control face in the 700 ms SOA condition. In contrast, for the inclusion group, the GCEs for inclusion and inclusion-control faces in both the 200 ms SOA and 700 ms SOA conditions did not significantly differ. This study reveals that the effect of social exclusion on the GCE is related to the identity of the cueing face, with individuals more reluctant to follow the gaze direction of excluder and shift their attention and provides experimental evidence that the perception of higher social relations can exert a top-down impact on the processing of social spatial cues.

Deconstructing Material Commodification: A Feminist Critique of Objectification in Qaisra Shahraz’s Holy Woman

The main concernof present study is to analyze Qaisra Shahraz’s Holy Woman by applying feministic lens and Simon de beaviour Second Sex Theoretical lens to discuss the materialistic commodification that influence the women individuality and identity as a woman. Using the objectification concept and feminist criticism, the study examines how the leading character Zarri Bano as targeted and objectified by her own .An examination of the material and /or trading concept of woman is then used through a detailed textual analysis to break down how various factors of sexualization, money, and femininity develop the women’s realities, their identity, and the systems of opposition available to them. This research delves into the patriarchal power dynamics that objectify and silence women's voices, particularly focusing on the subjugation of female subalterns by patriarchal forces. It highlights how these power structures manipulate discourse to impose specific identities on women, such as Holy women, izzat, gairat, purdah, and burqa to serve patriarchal agendas rather than genuine religious principles. Through the lens of Simon de Beauvoir's feminist philosophy, this study examines the character of Zari Bano in Qaisra Shahraz's novel Holy Woman as a symbol of subalternity, revealing the oppression she faces not only from her father but also from societal discrimination based on gender. The analysis demonstrates how patriarchal societies justify the marginalization of women to advance their own political and economic interests.

Evidence of Differences in Gender-Affirming School Experiences in a Sample of Transgender and Gender-Diverse Youth

Past and current research has often utilized a binary (ie, man/woman) category to measure gender and/or has combined multiple transgender identities into singular groups (eg, transgender girls and nonbinary youth as one category). However, transgender communities are heterogeneous and encompass much more than commonly recognized labels such as only transgender boys/girls and nonbinary youth. Furthermore, the small body of research that has investigated differences within transgender communities based on gender identity has found important health and behavioral differences. Using a large, national sample of transgender youth (N = 3,570), we investigated differences in health-relevant gender-affirming school experiences (ie, being referred to by the correct pronouns or name, authentic gender expression through clothing, and access to restrooms/locker rooms) among diverse transgender youth. Adjusted models (for outness, sexual identity, age, and caregiver education) indicated that transgender boys and transgender girls reported significantly worse gender-specific experiences in schools related to pronoun and chosen name use as well as access to restrooms/locker rooms compared with youth with nonbinary gender-diverse identities (eg, demigender and nonbinary), with some exceptions. Furthermore, transgender boys reported greater authentic gender expression through clothing relative to most other youth with nonbinary gender-diverse identities (eg, gender nonconforming and multiother). These findings have implications for how we might develop targeted interventions given that we pinpoint several disparities in health-relevant gender-affirming school experiences among transgender youth based on their specific gender identity. Finally, this provides stakeholders with a greater understanding of the extent of heterogeneity within transgender communities.

The birth order and identity formation during emerging adulthood

Introduction: The aim of the study was to analyse the relationship between birth order and identity development during emerging adulthood. Identity formation was defined in accordance with the Double Cycle of Identity Formation model by Koen Luyckx and the corresponding DIDS questionnaire in Polish adaptation by Konrad Piotrowski. Method: Referring to the Identity Development Dimensions Scale, hypotheses were put forward regarding birth order and the value of individual dimensions. 102 people took part in the study, in the form of an anonymous online questionnaire, declaring, among other things, their order of birth in the family. The obtained data were subjected to statistical analysis, where the intensity of each of the five dimensions of DIDS was compared: exploration in breadth, commitment making, ruminative exploration, exploration in depth, and identification with commitment. Results: Results of the study indicate that middle children undertake significantly less exploration in both breadth and depth, compared to the youngest and oldest children. Conclusions: A review of research dealing with the issue of birth order suggests that middle children are a very diverse and ill-defined group as a result of many intervening variables. Therefore, this group may have exceptional difficulty in exploring and finding their own space. The lack of specific identity characteristics or roles is not compensated here. Other factors pivotal for a person's identity formation are also considered in the postulates for further research, e.g. the matter of taking up a job.

Deconstructing the Clinging Myth of ‘Straight-Passing privilege’ for bi+ People

This article is premised on critiquing the idea that bi+ people – that is, those with multiple gendered attractions - have ‘straight-passing privilege.’ This assumed straight-passing privilege suggests that bi+ people are not equally affected by homophobia and heteronormativity when compared with lesbian and gay people. This article aims to demonstrate that this notion of straight-passing privilege is harmful in understanding bi+ people. To explore these arguments, this article uses literature relating to passing and identity management to understand how bi+ specific identities relate to these theoretical concepts. Through a sociological lens, this article argues that the idea of straight-passing privilege neglects the real circumstances of bi+ people, who experience safety and wellbeing concerns and presumed privileges because of these assumptions. It is correct that bi+ people may be able to pass as straight in certain circumstances, as may many lesbian and gay people, but the understanding of this as a privilege fails to account for the difficulties that anyone living outside of a heterosexual norm experiences. Rather, bi+ people are subject to biphobia and bisexual invisibility/erasure that impacts their ability to be ‘out’ at all—leaving them ontologically incom­prehensible.

Maturation of cortical input to dorsal raphe nucleus increases behavioral persistence in mice.

The ability to persist towards a desired objective is a fundamental aspect of behavioral control whose impairment is implicated in several behavioral disorders. One of the prominent features of behavioral persistence is that its maturation occurs relatively late in development. This is presumed to echo the developmental time course of a corresponding circuit within late-maturing parts of the brain, such as the prefrontal cortex, but the specific identity of the responsible circuits is unknown. Here, we used a genetic approach to describe the maturation of the projection from layer 5 neurons of the neocortex to the dorsal raphe nucleus in mice. Using optogenetic assisted circuit mapping, we show that this projection undergoes a dramatic increase in synaptic potency between postnatal weeks 3 and 8, corresponding to the transition from juvenile to adult. We then show that this period corresponds to an increase in the behavioral persistence that mice exhibit in a foraging task. Finally, we used a genetic targeting strategy that primarily affected neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), to selectively ablate this pathway in adulthood and show that mice revert to a behavioral phenotype similar to juveniles. These results suggest that frontal cortical to dorsal raphe input is a critical anatomical and functional substrate of the development and manifestation of behavioral persistence.

Internalized Homonegativity and Sexual Quality of Life in Italian Lesbian and Bisexual Women.

This study investigates the relationship between sexual quality of life (SQoL) and internalized homonegativity among Italian lesbian and bisexual cisgender women, drawing on the minority stress model. The aim of this study is to compare levels of internalized homonegativity and SQoL between the two groups, exploring the association between these variables. We used a quantitative methodology based on a questionnaire. The data were collected through an online questionnaire from 686 women, including 217 lesbians and 469 bisexuals, using the Lesbian Internalized Homophobia Scale and the Female-Sexual Quality of Life Questionnaire. Statistical analyses, including t-tests and linear regression, were performed to assess group differences and predictors of SQoL. The findings support the hypothesis that bisexual women may experience higher levels of internalized homonegativity. Additionally, the study reveals disparities in SQoL, with lesbian women reporting better outcomes. The linear regression model confirmed a significant negative association between internalized homonegativity and SQoL. The results highlight the need for further research on factors influencing sexual well-being in sexual minority women, and the need to give thorough attention to specific sexual identities in clinical and research practice.

Basement membrane diversification relies on two competitive secretory routes defined by Rab10 and Rab8 and modulated by dystrophin and the exocyst complex.

The basement membrane (BM) is an essential structural element of tissues, and its diversification participates in organ morphogenesis. However, the traffic routes associated with BM formation and the mechanistic modulations explaining its diversification are still poorly understood. Drosophila melanogaster follicular epithelium relies on a BM composed of oriented BM fibrils and a more homogenous matrix. Here, we determined the specific molecular identity and cell exit sites of BM protein secretory routes. First, we found that Rab10 and Rab8 define two parallel routes for BM protein secretion. When both routes were abolished, BM production was fully blocked; however, genetic interactions revealed that these two routes competed. Rab10 promoted lateral and planar-polarized secretion, whereas Rab8 promoted basal secretion, leading to the formation of BM fibrils and homogenous BM, respectively. We also found that the dystrophin-associated protein complex (DAPC) and Rab10 were both present in a planar-polarized tubular compartment containing BM proteins. DAPC was essential for fibril formation and sufficient to reorient secretion towards the Rab10 route. Moreover, we identified a dual function for the exocyst complex in this context. First, the Exo70 subunit directly interacted with dystrophin to limit its planar polarization. Second, the exocyst complex was also required for the Rab8 route. Altogether, these results highlight important mechanistic aspects of BM protein secretion and illustrate how BM diversity can emerge from the spatial control of distinct traffic routes.

Single-cell landscape of functionally cured chronic hepatitis B patients reveals activation of innate and altered CD4-CTL-driven adaptive immunity

Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) loss or functional cure (FC) is considered the optimal therapeutic outcome for patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB). However, the immune-pathological biomarkers and underlying mechanisms of FC remain unclear. In this study we comprehensively interrogate disease-associated cell states identified within intrahepatic tissue and matched PBMCs (peripheral blood mononuclear cells) from patients with CHB or after FC, at the resolution of single cells, to provide novel insights into putative mechanisms underlying FC. We combined single-cell transcriptomics (single-cell RNA sequencing) with multiparametric flow cytometry-based immune phenotyping, and multiplexed immunofluorescence to elucidate the immunopathological cell states associated with CHB vs. FC. We found that the intrahepatic environment in CHB and FC displays specific cell identities and molecular signatures that are distinct from those found in matched PBMCs. FC is associated with the emergence of an altered adaptive immune response marked by CD4 cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and an activated innate response represented by liver-resident natural killer cells, specific Kupffer cell subtypes and marginated neutrophils. Surprisingly, we found MHC class II-expressing hepatocytes in patients achieving FC, as well as low but persistent levels of covalently closed circular DNA and pregenomic RNA, which may play an important role in FC. Our study provides conceptually novel insights into the immuno-pathological control of HBV cure, and opens exciting new avenues for clinical management, biomarker discovery and therapeutic development. We believe that the discoveries from this study, as it relates to the activation of an innate and altered immune response that may facilitate sustained, low-grade inflammation, may have broader implications in the resolution of chronic viral hepatitis. This study dissects the immuno-pathological cell states associated with functionally cured chronic hepatitis B (defined by the loss of HBV surface antigen or HBsAg). We identified the sustained presence of very low viral load, accessory antigen-presenting hepatocytes, adaptive-memory-like natural killer cells, and the emergence of helper CD4 T cells with cytotoxic or effector-like signatures associated with functional cure, suggesting previously unsuspected alterations in the adaptive immune response, as well as a key role for the innate immune response in achieving or maintaining functional cure. Overall, the insights generated from this study may provide new avenues for the development of alternative therapies as well as patient surveillance for better clinical management of chronic hepatitis B.

Expression of endogenous epitope-tagged GPR4 in the mouse brain.

GPR4 is a proton-sensing G protein-coupled receptor implicated in many peripheral and central physiological processes. GPR4 expression has previously been assessed only via detection of the cognate transcript or indirectly, by use of fluorescent reporters. In this work, CRISPR/Cas9 knock-in technology was used to encode a hemagglutinin (HA) epitope tag within the endogenous locus of Gpr4 and visualize GPR4-HA in the mouse central nervous system using a specific, well characterized HA antibody; GPR4 expression was further verified by complementary Gpr4 mRNA detection. HA immunoreactivity was found in a limited set of brain regions, including in the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN), serotonergic raphe nuclei, medial habenula, lateral septum, and several thalamic nuclei. GPR4 expression was not restricted to cells of a specific neurochemical identity as it was observed in excitatory, inhibitory, and aminergic neuronal cell groups. HA immunoreactivity was not detected in brain vascular endothelium, despite clear expression of Gpr4 mRNA in endothelial cells. In the RTN, GPR4 expression was detected at the soma and in proximal dendrites along blood vessels and the ventral surface of the brainstem; HA immunoreactivity was not detected in RTN projections to two known target regions. This localization of GPR4 protein in mouse brain neurons corroborates putative sites of expression where its function has been previously implicated (e.g., CO2-regulated breathing by RTN), and provides a guide for where GPR4 could contribute to other CO2/H+ modulated brain functions. Finally, GPR4-HA animals provide a useful reagent for further study of GPR4 in other physiological processes outside of the brain.Significance Statement GPR4 is a proton-sensing G-protein coupled receptor whose expression is necessary for a number of diverse physiological processes including acid-base sensing in the kidney, immune function, and cancer progression. In the brain, GPR4 has been implicated in the hypercapnic ventilatory response mediated by brainstem neurons. While knockout studies in animals have clearly demonstrated its necessity for normal physiology, descriptions of GPR4 expression have been limited due to a lack of specific antibodies for use in mouse models. In this paper, we implemented a CRISPR/Cas9 knock-in approach to incorporate the coding sequence for a small epitope tag into the locus of GPR4. Using these mice, we were able to describe GPR4 protein expression directly for the first time.

The Failure of Liberal Interventionism: Deconstructing Afghan Identity Discourses of “Modern” and “Tradition”

In Afghanistan, the crisis of liberal intervention unfolded in the failure to establish democratic structures as a solution to terrorism and extremism in the aftermath of 9/11. Following the emergency withdrawal of US and NATO forces from Afghanistan on August 30, 2021, President Ashraf Ghani discreetly left Kabul, enabling the Taliban to regain control and form a new government in the country. The recurrent pattern of intervention and the subsequent return of the Taliban highlights a failure of the liberal project, which is a significant concern addressed in this article as the main question: Why has liberal intervention failed in Afghanistan? The answer lies in deconstructing the hegemonic discourse of “modern” Afghan to understand how it was resisted and replaced by the alternative discourse of “tradition,” subsequently, leading to the failure of the liberal project. The “modern” discourse, rooted in the US social context, aimed to civilise the perceived primitive and traditional Afghans. Conversely, the Taliban, drawing upon the Afghan social context, contested the “modern” discourse with an alternative discourse of “tradition” portraying liberals and their supporters as “occupiers” and “oppressors,” thus, justifying their armed resistance (jihad) against occupying forces. Framed within a critical social constructivism, the text, interviews, speeches, and statements of prominent Taliban leaders and the US presidents, apprise how specific identities have been employed to naturalise the “modern” discourse as justification for intervention. Critical discourse analysis explicates how the “tradition” discourse denaturalised the former and, subsequently, facilitated the establishment of the Taliban’s power in Afghanistan.

A Study of Some New Hermite–Hadamard Inequalities via Specific Convex Functions with Applications

Convexity plays a crucial role in the development of fractional integral inequalities. Many fractional integral inequalities are derived based on convexity properties and techniques. These inequalities have several applications in different fields such as optimization, mathematical modeling and signal processing. The main goal of this article is to establish a novel and generalized identity for the Caputo–Fabrizio fractional operator. With the help of this specific developed identity, we derive new fractional integral inequalities via exponential convex functions. Furthermore, we give an application to some special means.

Systematic review of queer and minority identities in romantic relationships research

ABSTRACT Romantic relationships are key to our health, yet recent reviews of relationships research show that sexual and/or gender diverse people and other traditionally under-represented groups are frequently excluded. Articles published from 2016 to 2020 in four relationships journals were reviewed to address the overall representation of sexual and gender minority (SGM) respondents (k = 891), and discuss the specific social identities included in U.S. samples (k = 505). First, only 37% of samples reported gender and sexual orientation, 21% of samples included SGM respondents in analyses, and 6% of samples excluded SGM respondents from the data. Second, samples were, on average, 77.4% White, 13.3% Hispanic, 58.8% (cisgender) women, 41.0% (cisgender) men, and 89.6% heterosexual. Consideration of intersecting identities was rare. We make recommendations to improve reporting and the representation of diverse identities. For social science to reflect the diversity of experiences present in society at large requires more intentional, reflective, and consistent consideration of diverse identities.

Intergenerational Transmission of Ethnoracial Historical Trauma in the United States.

Throughout time, ethnoracial groups have endured a range of traumatic experiences as historically marginalized members of the United States. The consequences of these experiences have been referred to as historical trauma (HT): a collective trauma, inflicted on a group of people who share a specific identity, that has psychological, physical, and social impacts on succeeding generations. In this review, we examine the literature on HT in relation to US ethnoracial groups by defining HT, providing a background for its development, and describing critiques of the concept. We then review the literature on HT in relation to Indigenous Americans, African Americans, and Asian Americans. For each group, we address the nature of HT, the transmission of HT and its impacts, and healing strategies. We conclude with a summary of the benefits, limitations, and complexities of HT research as well as recommendations for future work in this area.

The trilobite assemblage of the Declivolithus Fauna (lower Katian, Ordovician) of Morocco: a review with new data

Abstract Intense commercial exploitation of fossils in the famous El Qaid Errami area in the last 20 years has led to the discovery of the interesting Declivolithus Fauna in the Moroccan Anti-Atlas. This unusually large trinucleid trilobite, described originally from the Czech Republic, is the most conspicuous element of an assemblage mainly occurring in the Bofloss locality, a local biofacies development of pelagic mudstones and sandstones cropping out in a structurally isolated place in the Tizi n'Ounfite area. Here we revise this Declivolithus Fauna trilobite assemblage from Morocco, increasing the known trilobite diversity from four to 11 species: Ulugtella? biformis n. sp., Selenopeltis cf. S. vultuosa, Phacopidina quadrata, Eudolatites cf. E. bondoni, Prionocheilus cf. P. verneuili, Nobiliasaphus cf. N. kumatox, Cyclopyge cf. C. rediviva, Symphysops stevaninae, Heterocyclopyge sp., Dionide sp., and Declivolithus alfredi. The new data and the very good preservation of specimens in sandstones, clarify the specific identity of previously reported taxa. Although the stratigraphical correlation of the fossiliferous levels remains problematic, it probably corresponds to the upper part of the Lower Ktaoua Formation or to the lower half of the Upper Tiouririne Formation. Most taxa support previous assignment of the Moroccan assemblage to the late Berounian (ca. early Katian, Ka2), although a middle Berounian (ca. Sa2–Ka1) age cannot be excluded. Most of the identified species are known from the Czech Republic (eight out of 11), showing that the strong faunal link between Morocco and the Czech Republic still existed during the Late Ordovician, being stronger than the link with the coeval Ibero-Armorican domain faunas. UUID: http://zoobank.org/3e6e55c7-168d-4008-98ba-38a795581ca3

The preoptic area and dorsal habenula jointly support homeostatic navigation in larval zebrafish

Animals must maintain physiological processes within an optimal temperature range despite changes in their environment. Through behavioral assays, whole-brain functional imaging, and neural ablations, we show that larval zebrafish, an ectothermic vertebrate, achieves thermoregulation through homeostatic navigation-non-directional and directional movements toward the temperature closest to its physiological setpoint. A brain-wide circuit encompassing several brain regions enables this behavior. We identified the preoptic area of the hypothalamus (PoA) as a key brain structure in triggering non-directional reorientation when thermal conditions are worsening. This result shows an evolutionary conserved role of the PoA as principal thermoregulator of the brain also in ectotherms. We further show that the habenula (Hb)-interpeduncular nucleus (IPN) circuit retains a short-term memory of the sensory history to support the generation of coherent directed movements even in the absence of continuous sensory cues. We finally provide evidence that this circuit may not be exclusive for temperature but may convey a more abstract representation of relative valence of physiologically meaningful stimuli regardless of their specific identity to enable homeostatic navigation.

Ideology, war, and genocide – the empirical case of Bosnia and Herzegovina

ABSTRACT This article explores the connections among the discursive nature of ideology, identity politics, forced displacement, and symbolic and actual war violence leading to genocide. The general framework of the article is the Bosnian War (1992–1995), waged against the country and its civilians. The analytical basis is a literature review of various studies from the domains of sociology of knowledge, war sociology, and social epistemology. It is based on the perspective of the genocide in Bosnia as a process that began in northwest and east Bosnia in 1992 and terminated in Srebrenica in 1995 (in the municipality Prijedor in northwest Bosnia in 1992, more than 3000 civilians were killed). Mass crimes and the policy of fear mongering were intended to create and recreate the collective belief that coexistence in Bosnia was impossible and that establishing “ethnically pure cultures” and “ethnically pure territories” should be accepted as a deterministic historical necessity. The results of our research indicate that crimes against civilians can be “normalized” only after a “new social order” has been established as a war order with the help of media propaganda. Genocide can be committed only if the perpetrators (and its advocates acting in the name of specific identity politics) believe that committing violence can be justified by a “higher cause.”

Fractional Milne-type inequalities for twice differentiable functions

<abstract><p>In this study, a specific identity was derived for functions that possess two continuous derivatives. Through the utilization of this identity and Riemann-Liouville fractional integrals, several fractional Milne-type inequalities were established for functions whose second derivatives inside the absolute value are convex. Additionally, an example and a graphical representation are included to clarify the core findings of our research.</p></abstract>

Development and initial validation of a sexual and gender minority competency-based survey for health service professionals.

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) individuals endure a number of health disparities, such as higher rates of violence, mental health conditions, and medical concerns. These disparities are exacerbated by the fact that SGM individuals face stigmatizing health care provider and system-related experiences. The primary purpose of this study was to quantify health service providers' SGM health competency by developing a measure, namely the Health Care Competency Assessment Form-Sexual and Gender Minority Patients (HCAF-SGM). Further, we examined correlates of SGM health competency based on leading theories of prejudice, primarily the dual process model of prejudice and social identity theory. The study comprised two phases: item development and pilot testing, followed by a primary online survey administration with several health care professionals and training organizations (N = 155). Study findings supported a one-factor HCAF-SGM score, suggesting that health care providers view their competency regarding SGM individuals in a holistic manner, without differentiating between knowledge, attitude, and skill. The measure was found to be negatively associated with right-wing authoritarianism and positively correlated with specific social identities most salient to the topic of SGM health (i.e., health care professional and SGM). The HCAF-SGM shows promise as a reliable and valid assessment of perceived provider health care competency. Implications for SGM health-related measurement, clinical supervision, and training are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Городской вид как культурная ценность

The article analyzes cityscapes from the point of view of their value for the formation and preservation of the spatial and temporal unity of the cultural landscape of the historical city. The author distinguishes between cityscapes (urban views) as images of any urban location or composition and cityscapes (urban views) as configurations of architectural and other material spaces that we can observe in a real urban environment. The cityscape is defined in this article as a freely perceived, “readable” architectural urban composition, having high artistic significance and “supporting” the surrounding urban tissue, being the most important factor in the activity of citizens and guests of the city, and is also “responsible” for a specific identity urban space as a whole. A cityscape usually consists of several spatial patterns. The space of a traditional Russian city is formed as a system of urban views that reveal both its geographical design and its sacred semantics. Damage (destruction) of one or more cityscapes leads to degradation of the urban environment as a whole. The author defines the main reasons for the destruction of cityscapes and determines the consequences of these processes. The author concludes that cityscapes (urban views), as spatial structures that form the supporting frame of the visual environment, are fundamental part of the entire culture structure called ‘the city’. The system of urban views carries a number of integration functions: logistic, aesthetic, semiotic, local-historical, cultural-identification, social. The system of cityscapes directly reveals the specifics of the city. The preservation of cityscapes as fundamental pillars of the urban environment and as cultural heritage values ensures the actuality of the historical past, the spatialtemporal unity of an identical urban environment, and also instills in citizens a sense of belonging to their city, which exists only in a ‘long time’ of culture.