Specific Fuels Research Articles

A Comparative Study of SOx, NOx, PM2.5 and PM10 in the UK and Poland from 1970 to 2020

Presently, there is growing discourse surrounding climate change, global warming, and the possibility of urban smog. Daily, we encounter air pollutants unwittingly, often oblivious to the substantial adverse impacts they may impart on our health. This manuscript furnishes a thorough examination of the shifts in the concentrations of distinct air pollutants, namely, sulphur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter PM2.5 and PM10, within the contexts of the United Kingdom (a country progressively transitioning to alternative energy sources) and Poland (a country in the EU with the second lowest climate policy evaluation in the climate change performance index or CCPI) from 1970 to 2020. This comparative study between the two countries clearly showed the importance of the transition to clean energy sources. The UK’s efforts towards cleaner energy sources have led to reduced emissions of sulphur oxides (SOx) and particulate matter. In contrast, Poland’s heavy dependence on energy primarily from coal over the years has resulted in elevated pollution levels, notably in the concentration of pollutants such as particulate matter. This study also revealed that changes in emissions predominantly stem from technological advancements and economic activities. Additionally, political regulations and the gradual phase-out of specific fuels or energy-rich substances and their substitution with alternative energy sources have also imparted considerable influence.

NAVIGATING DECARBONIZATION: EXAMINING SHIPPING COMPANIES’ FLEET MODERNIZATION STRATEGIES WORLDWIDE

The shipping industry's heavy reliance on fossil fuels has significantly contributed to global greenhouse gas emissions, necessitating urgent decarbonization measures. In this context, the trend towards environmentally friendly alternative fuels has accelerated and shipping companies has begun fleet modernization such as retrofitting vessels to accommodate alternative fuel systems or investing in new ships designed for specific alternative fuels. However, there are contradicting approaches in practice on viable option(s) to decarbonize. In this study, it is aimed to determine which strategies the shipping companies in fleet modernization mainly prefer. In this context, the current news under the title of "Shipping-Decarbonization" in the Thompson Reuters Refinitiv terminal has been scanned to seek answers about the direction in which the preferences of practitioners have evolved. Although there are different investment preferences, it has been determined that companies are predominantly investing in ships with methanol and LNG propulsion systems or retrofitting their existing fleets in this area on their decarbonization journey. Based on the analysis, this study aims to provide valuable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders especially on identification of preferred alternative fuels in order to customize incentives and regulations aimed at encouraging the adoption of these particular alternative fuels

Structural and morphological studies on yttrium-doped magnesium aluminate spinel powders synthesized by mixed-fuel solution combustion synthesis approach

The incorporation of yttrium ions into the structure of magnesium aluminate spinel can be an effective approach to modify its microstructure, enhancing its formation, sintering behavior, and mechanical properties. In this work, a mixed-fuel solution combustion synthesis approach was used to prepare yttrium-doped spinel powders with the composition MgAl2-xYxO4 (x=0; 0.02; 0.06 and 0.10). It was shown that combustion of magnesium-, aluminum- and yttrium-nitrate salts solution in the presence of a mixture of specific fuels for each metal nitrate enables the direct production of crystalline spinels without the need for additional thermal treatment. Structural and morphological characterization showed that the main phase in all samples is a spinel phase (S.G. Fd3-m), while periclase (MgO), monoclinic yttrium aluminate (Y4Al2O9), and yttrium aluminum garnet (Y3Al5O12) were found in small portion in some samples. The average crystallite size increased in Y3+-substituted samples relative to undoped MgAl2O4, from 15 nm up to 40 nm. The lattice parameter increased with increase in yttrium content, ranging from 8.071 ? to 8.086 ?. The specific surface area of the synthesized powders spans from 8.2 m?/g for the undoped powder to 3.3 m?/g for the Y3+- substituted spinels with the maximum added yttrium content.

Tuning CO2 hydrogenation selectivity via support interface types on Cu-based catalysts

Growing interest has been shown in controlling the selectivity of CO2 hydrogenation to produce specific compounds and fuels with additional value. However, it is challenging to selectively generate target products due to the complexity and diversity of the products in CO2 hydrogenation reaction. Herein, we reported a finding in the CO2 hydrogenation reaction: selectivity could be totally reversed by just altering support interface types on Cu-based catalysts. Cu/ZnO-MgO catalysts showed high CH3OH selectivity, while Cu/ZnO-CoO catalysts exhibited good selectivity of CH4. According to in-depth characterization, varied basicity sites most likely as results of the different support interface types. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations pointed that support interface types altered the adsorption position of H2COO* on catalysts and affect the adsorption and activation of intermediates, and thus resulted in noticeably varied product selectivity. This study demonstrated the value of regulating CO2 hydrogenation selectivity via support interface types on Cu-based catalysts, which can aid in the rational design of catalysts for not only CO2 hydrogenation but also other significant reactions.

Evaluating the Readiness of Ships and Ports to Bunker and Use Alternative Fuels: A Case Study from Brazil

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has recently revised its strategy for shipping decarbonization, deepening the ambition to reduce annual greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. The accomplishment of this strategy requires the large-scale deployment of alternative maritime fuels, whose diversity and technical characteristics impose transition challenges. While several studies address the production of these fuels, a notable gap lies in the analysis of the required adaptations in vessels and ports for their usage. This study aims to fill this gap with a comprehensive review of material compatibility, storage in ports/vessels, and bunkering technology. First, we analyze key aspects of port/vessel adaptation: physical and chemical properties; energy conversion for propulsion; fuel feeding and storage; and bunkering procedures. Then, we perform a maturity assessment, placing each studied fuel on the technological readiness scale, revealing the most promising options regarding infrastructure adaptability. Finally, we develop a case study from Brazil, whose economy is grounded on maritime exports. The findings indicate that multi-product ports may have the potential to serve as multi-fuel hubs, while the remaining ports are inclined to specific fuels. In terms of vessel categories, we find that oil tankers, chemical ships, and gas carriers are most ready for conversion in the short term.

A Study on Numerical Model Uncertainty of Smoke Concentration in Fire Simulation

The prediction accuracy of smoke concentration related to visibility in fire hazard assessment using fire simulation contains a significant error compared to gas temperature and toxic gas concentration. However, the results are limited because the prediction uncertainty of smoke concentration was reviewed through specific fuels and experimental conditions. This study conducted experiments and simulations to evaluate the prediction uncertainty of smoke concentration in the numerical model using various fire conditions. Consequently, as various fuel and experimental conditions were applied, the predicted smoke concentration using fire simulation was confirmed to have a relative error from –45% to 520% based on the measurement data. Moreover, it was also confirm that the dependence on fuel types was significant.

Organic molecule-modified copper catalyst enables efficient electrochemical reduction of CO2-to-methane

Renewable electricity powered CO2 electroreduction to methane is promising for producing highly specific combustion fuels. However, the reduction process is severely limited by poor selectivity and chemical activity at high electrolysis reaction rates. Herein, we produce tandem electrocatalysts by combining organic small molecules (perylene-3,4,9,10-tetracarboxylic dianhydride and pentacene) with copper catalysts supported on microporous polytetra fluoroethylene with enhanced *CO protonation and weakened hydrogen evolution. Experimental results show that the tandem catalysts effectively suppress the two-electron reduction process associated with hydrogen (H2) and carbon monoxide (CO) production while inhibiting the multielectron conversion process associated with ethylene production (C2H4). As a result, the tandem catalysts enable an efficient eight-electron transfer for electrochemical reduction of CO2 and demonstrate a ∼ 50 % (±2%) Faradaic efficiency for CO2-to-methane conversion at a partial current density of 220 mA cm−2 in 1 M KHCO3 solution. Notably, the selectively of CO2-to-CH4 is 2.7 times higher than that of a copper catalyst supported on microporous polytetra fluoroethylene which is known to produce C2H4 with ∼ 50 % Faradaic efficiency. This work paves the way for tuning *CO dimerization and hydrogen evolution reaction to maximize CO2 methanation by using abundant organic molecular materials.

The Consequential Role of Aesthetics in Forest Fuels Reduction Propensities: Diverse Landowners’ Attitudes and Responses to Project Types, Risks, Costs, and Habitat Benefits

Private landowners in the southern Willamette Valley of Oregon, USA were surveyed. The survey queried probabilities of implementing specific fuels reduction projects in extensive areas of specific forest types on their property. The projects were described in relation to the beginning and target forest types, the actions required, costs, and long-term maintenance. Forest types were first rated for scenic beauty and informed levels of wildfire risk reduction, scarce habitat production, and associated property rights risks. Propensities to perform each fuels reduction project were then obtained. These were adversely affected by disbelief in heightened wildfire risks or climate change, higher project costs, feelings of hopeless vulnerability to wildfire, and low aesthetic affections for target forests. Propensities were enhanced by aesthetic affection for target forests, belief in the efficaciousness of fuels reduction, previous experience with wildfire evacuation, and higher incomes. All landowners favored thinning of young conifer forests, but some were averse to thinning of mature conifer forests. Anthropocentric landowners, mainly farmers, foresters, and some small holders, tended to favor conventional thinnings toward commercially valuable conifer forests and avoided long-term habitat maintenance. Nature-centric landowners, mainly some rural residents and wealthy estate owners, leaned more toward long term habitat goals and oak forests.

The influence of mineral addition on the Optimised Advanced Ash Fusion Test (OAAFT) and its thermochemical modelling and prediction

Specific minerals in ash are triggers for ash fusion during combustion. This study analyses, for the first time, the link between individual minerals and the ash fusion of pseudo ash pellets using the Optimised Advanced Ash Fusion Test (OAAFT) and FactSage modelling. The study analysed 20 pseudo ash pellets whose composition spanned a wide range of fuels used in the power generation industry. Varying quantities of the 4 main minerals were used to create the pseudo pellets; CaO (0–40%), Fe2O3 (0–40%), MgO (0–25%), and Silica-Alumina ratio (0.5:1–4:1). The OAAFT produced characteristic ash fusion curves for the pseudo pellets and individual minerals. The study also gained insight into the link between mineral transformations and ash fusion by comparing these profiles to the slag formation predictions in the FactSage modelling. Excellent alignment was obtained between the OAAFT curves and FactSage data. The OAFFT curves can be described as individual fingerprints of the ash fusion behaviour of the sample, which can be broken down into individual components. This data cannot be obtained from the conventional ash fusion test. By combining OAAFT and FactSage data, power generators can replicate slagging and fouling issues and identify the major components which are causing issues. The addition of mineral additives can be tested to analyse how slagging and fouling issues can be tackled for specific fuels. This will be of increasing importance as fuel blending and new complex fuels such as refuse derived fuels enter the market.

Strained Lattice Gold-Copper Alloy Nanoparticles for Efficient Carbon Dioxide Electroreduction.

Electrocatalytic conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) into specific renewable fuels is an attractive way to mitigate the greenhouse effect and solve the energy crisis. AunCu100-n/C alloy nanoparticles (AunCu100−n/C NPs) with tunable compositions, a highly active crystal plane and a strained lattice were synthesized by the thermal solvent co-reduction method. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) results show that AunCu100−n/C catalysts display a subtle lattice strain and dominant (111) crystal plane, which can be adjusted by the alloy composition. Electrochemical results show that AunCu100−n/C alloy catalysts for CO2 reduction display high catalytic activity; in particular, the Faradaic efficiency of Au75Cu25/C is up to 92.6% for CO at −0.7 V (vs. the reversible hydrogen electrode), which is related to lattice shrinkage and the active facet. This research provides a new strategy with which to design strong and active nanoalloy catalysts with lattice mismatch and main active surfaces for CO2 reduction reaction.

Effects of stratification and charge cooling on combustion in a gasoline direct-injection compression ignition (GDCI) engine

With the development of low temperature engine combustion strategies, performance of gasoline-type fuels under compression ignition conditions has attracted extensive research interest. Meanwhile, for the sake of co-optimization of engines and fuels for future ground transportation, identification and evaluation of general fuel properties should be a core research priority instead of endless testing of specific fuels. In this study, the roles of fuel octane sensitivity in characterizing the ignition performance of gasoline surrogates have been systematically investigated under typical gasoline direct ignition compression ignition (GDCI) engine conditions using 3D combustion CFD simulation, especially considering the subsequent in-cylinder charge stratification and charge cooling. Two different operating conditions, high boost pressure low boost temperature (beyond-RON) case and low boost pressure high boost temperature (beyond-MON) case, were considered. By comparing with our previous zero-dimensional chemical kinetic study of gasoline surrogates in advanced compression ignition (ACI) engines, the effects of stratification and charge cooling on the combustion processes are investigated. It is found that different fuel octane sensitivities lead to slight difference in equivalence ratio stratification and charge cooling due to differences in volatility. However, fuel reactivity is still the more dominant factor than the stratification and charge cooling effects in determining combustion phasing. The present results help to justify the P-T domain framework for engine autoignition analysis of overlapping pressure-temperature trajectory with ignition delay iso-contour. The results also provide useful guidance to the understanding of GCI combustion process, and to the evaluation of controlling fuel properties and the selection of alternative fuels in GCI engines

A computational framework for combustion of powdered solid fuels in a MILD reactor using a novel devolatilisation model

In this paper, a computational framework for modelling the thermochemical conversion of powdered solid fuels in a MILD reactor is presented. Specific fuels of interest are high ash coals and lignocellulosic biomass. The novelty of the current framework lies in recognising that the devolatilisation process of charring fuels like biomass and coal is surface heat transfer limited at heating rates relevant to practical systems. The in-house unified ignition devolatilisation model developed for pelletised biomass in a packed bed configuration is extended to powdered fuels. Comprehensive modelling of a 50 kW solid fuel MILD reactor is accomplished by integrating the particle model with a commercially available CFD code. Unsteady Lagrangian particle tracking in an Eulerian gas phase is used to resolve the temperature profile in the reactor. Heat loss from the reactor walls, an essential parameter for obtaining accurate temperature profiles, is obtained by striking an energy balance over the entire domain using experimental data (from the earlier work of the authors). Results of numerical simulations with two different fuels (powdered coal and groundnut shells) covering a wide range of flow conditions obtained with the framework are presented in the current study. Normalised spatial temperature variation and the O mole fraction profiles with the two fuels indicate that the reactor operates in MILD mode. The temperature profiles predicted with the framework are in satisfactory agreement with the experimental results. The modelling approach successfully predicts the operational regimes of the reactor. A noteworthy feature of the new framework is its applicability in predicting devolatilisation of different fuels without the need for any adjustable constants. This enables the use of this framework as a predictive design tool.

Modeling the Effects of Implementation of Alternative Ways of Vehicle Powering

The trend to replace traditional fossil fuel vehicles is becoming increasingly apparent. The replacement concerns the use of pure biofuels or in blends with traditional fuels, the use of hydrogen as an alternative fuel and, above all, the introduction of electric propulsion. The introduction of new types of vehicle propulsion affects the demand for specific fuels, the needs for new infrastructure, or the nature of the emissions to the environment generated by fuel production and vehicle operation. The article presents a mathematical model using the difference of two logistic functions, the first of which describes the development of the production of a specific type of vehicle, and the second, the withdrawal of this type of vehicle from traffic after its use. The model makes it possible to forecast both the number of vehicles of each generation as a function of time, as well as changes in energy demand from various sources and changes in exhaust emissions. The results of the numerical simulation show replacing classic vehicles with alternative vehicles increases the total energy demand if the generation of the next generation occurs earlier than the decay of the previous generation of vehicles and may decrease in the case of overlapping or delays in the creation of new vehicles compared to the course of the decay function of the previous generation. For electric vehicles, carbon dioxide emissions are largely dependent on the emissions from electricity generation. The proposed model can be used to forecast technology development variants, as well as analyze the current situation based on the approximation of real data from Vehicle Registration Offices.

Social media, popular culture and ‘soft heritage’: Chinese tourists in search of Harry Potter

Complex relationships exist between rationales for visiting, experiences and perceptions. Tourists are influenced by others, increasingly through social media as electronic word of mouth (ewom). While visitation rationales associated with popular culture are well documented, less understood is how social media use among specific cultural groups constructs and fuels new fictitious sites of popular cultural tourism, through what we call ‘soft heritage’. Particular physical qualities (often visual) endow places with a distinct but fabricated heritage value, linked especially to fictional characters in popular culture. Tourism numbers grow accordingly, as soft heritage sites become marked places for tourists of specific cultural backgrounds. This is illustrated through the case of the University of Sydney, which in the 2010s became a significant destination for Chinese tourists. Through mixed-methods research involving participant observation and interviews with 85 Chinese tourists, the rationales, experiences and perceptions of Chinese tourists were explored. Reasons for visiting included group tours, education, heritage and photography, but a key attraction was the ‘Harry Potter building’, a site not in JK Rowling’s books, nor involved in the making of the films, and not previously a tourist attraction. So much did social media and the Harry Potter Building influence tourism that the University became the most prominent of the city’s several ‘marked places’ (daka). The participatory character of Chinese social media, combined with architectural heritage and the enthusiasm of many younger Chinese tourists for Harry Potter, led them to create a new Chinese tourist site (or daka destination) without input from the management of the place itself.

Energy poverty in the COVID-19 era: Mapping global responses in light of momentum for the right to energy

This article presents the results of the COVID Energy Map, a novel, global mapping exercise tracking emergency responses undertaken by governments, regulators, utilities and companies in the Global North and South to mitigate energy poverty by keeping energy affordable and available. The map constitutes a comprehensive open access evidence-based database, so far collating 380+ emergency measures, in 120+ countries. This paper particularly shows and discusses how the response has been developing until early 2021, highlighting various emerging longer-term concerns and strategies across Global North and South. The global COVID-19 response merits close attention in our view, as it reveals both the universal importance of household energy services access and important underlying existing narratives and policy-making questionsabout securing energy services access as a vital basic need, and even a ‘basic right’. In fact, the paper additionally evaluates whether and how COVID-19 responses seem to fall in step with a nascent global trend of (legal) recognition of ‘rights to energy’ in international, regional and national policy, including for example in the EU, India, Philippines, and Colombia.We conclude that while the COVID-19 response clearly reflects broad recognition of the vital importance of affordable, continuous energy services access for basic human well-being and capabilities during the pandemic, a right to energy perspective could additionally lay bare or give shape to important concerns about some households’ too minimal (insufficient) forms of modern energy access, questions of equity, and the role of the state and other actors. In terms of equity the article particularly raises issues with the manner in which support was made available only to some consumers (e.g. on-grid, off-grid, regulated, or non-regulated, post-paid or pre-paid), or only for specific fuels, and not others. In addition, the lack of attention to clean (renewable) (off-grid) energy services in COVID-19 responses is striking, and worrying, both in terms of immediate response, and green recovery from COVID-19. We argue that a right to (clean) energy perspective would help to reflect on, and inform, both shorter-term and longer-term responses to energy poverty and COVID-19, and should aid the realization of sufficiently equitable, robust, modern energy systems in line with universal UN Global Sustainable Development Goal 7. Specifically, it should also help to fulfil SDG7.1.’s promise of ‘leaving no one behind’.

Cooking Fuel Usage in Sub-Saharan Urban Households

This study models the frequency use of wood, charcoal, liquid gas, electricity, and kerosene in urban households in Ghana and supplements the literature on cooking fuel choices. The modeling is based on survey data collected in several major Ghanaian cities. Survey results indicate that charcoal and liquid gas are frequently used in meal preparation, while the frequency use of firewood, kerosene, and electricity is limited. Frequency use is estimated using the ordered probit technique. Five cooking fuel use equations identify income, socio-demographic characteristics, and location of urban residents as influencing the frequency use. Statistically significant effects measure probability changes in each of the four fuel categories. Income and education increase the probability of often or very often of using liquid gas or electricity to cook. The effect of being employed by the government is similar but less consistent. Age, household size, and marital status are linked to frequency use, but differently affect specific fuels. As the number of children or adults increases in a household, so does the probability of using firewood or charcoal, but this also increases the probability that such households never use liquid gas or electricity for cooking. Regional differences indicate Tamale residents heavily rely on wood and charcoal, and infrequently use liquid gas or electricity. Multiple cooking fuel use behavior may reflect risk aversion to fuel shortages. Increasing incomes and improving education will drive the probability of an increased use of cleaner cooking fuels and decreased use of fuel mixes, benefiting meal preparers’ health and the environment.

Performance and exhaust emissions rate of small-scale turbojet engine running on dual biodiesel blends using Gasturb

Gas turbines are designed to run on specific fuels such as conventional fuels, so researchers are working to find alternative fuels as biodiesel. The purpose of this study is predicting the engine performance and emissions rate for the KingTech K180 turbojet engine running on dual biodiesel and its blend with Jet-A fuel. Besides that, this paper explores the different effect between dual blends and single blend. The fuel parameters were calculated based on each fuel's physicochemical properties to produce nine different blends of dual biodiesel (B10-Jet, B30-Jet, B50-Jet, B70-Jet, and B90-Jet) and a single biodiesel blend (POME50: Jet-A50). Then the heat of combustion for each blend was obtained using the GasTurb Details-6. After that, the design point was determined of the specific engine and operates it using alternative fuels to analyze the performance and emissions characteristics (CO, CO2, and NOx). This study found that the B10-Jet blend gave the best specific fuel consumption (SFC) value, 42.43 (g/kN.s). It also produced a lower emissions rate for CO and CO2 than Jet-A fuel and other blends. While emission index NOx was high for all blends, except B10-Jet fuel value was close to Jet-A fuel emission value.

Waste Cooking Oil Biodiesel: Its Testing, Performance and Emission in an Unaltered Diesel Engine

Rapid climate changes with global warming are the primary dispute of the recent era cause of diesel engine emission. Among the probable fuels, biodiesel is the most promising one as the alternative of petroleum diesel. Biodiesel can be formed from residue of cooking oil by transesterification. The reaction rate can be increased with alkali Catalyst at a 55 °C temperature. The actions of waste cooking oil biodiesel (WCOB) compared with petroleum diesel were performed to observe the nature of an unaltered stationary diesel engine. In this study the specific fuels are: B10 biodiesel-diesel blend contained 10% WCOB and petroleum diesel (B0).The performance of an unaltered diesel engine fuelled with WCOB blend is examined in this study. In order to find out the performance results constant engine speed (1500 rpm) is being maintained during the experiments under 0%, 25%, 50% and 100% load conditions. It has been observed that when the engine setup was fuelled with WCOB blend B10, the performance depleted at mid to top load conditions but no drastic reduction in emission.

Decline of Fossil Fuels in Electricity Required for 1.5°C Target Has Historical Precedents Except in Asia

Stopping global warming requires a rapid decline in the use of fossil fuels but the feasibility of such decline is unknown. Here we identify and analyse whether there are historical precedents for the decline of fossil fuels in electricity necessary to meet climate targets. We find that the maximum rates of decline were historically lower in larger electricity systems. In continental-scale systems, the use of specific fuels declined up to 20% of total electricity supply over a decade. These precedents occurred under trade embargoes, post-Communist transitions, or, recently, in wealthy countries with stagnating electricity demand. The speed of decline needed for reaching climate targets does not generally exceed these historically observed rates with the exception of coal power in Asia between 2020-2030 (IQR: 18-34%). Thus, the rates of fossils decline in many climate mitigation pathways are not unprecedented, though their feasibility under growing electricity demand and in younger power fleets is still questionable.

Design and analysis of multi fuel injector

In accordance with strict emission norms, the depletion of fossil fuels requires a fuel injection system that is efficient, responsive, and adaptable to various locally available fuels. Hence, electronically controlled fuel injector technology is the best option for fulfilling this requirement. Commercially, there are various types of fuel injectors which are mainly used for specific fuels such as gasoline, diesel, CNG, LPG, etc. This research outlined in this paper is based on the design of a multi-fuel injectorwhich will be compatible to both gaseous and liquid fuels as a tremendous volume of research has been done in the usage of alternative fuels like hydrogen, JP-8, biogas, producer gas, acetylene, alcohol, and biodiesel. Since the government is primarily focused on green fuels and biogas fuels, the design of such a type of injector will become an excellent opportunity for the design of new products that will be compatible with automobile engines, gas-turbines, aerospace combustion furnaces, gas stoves, etc. An electronically controlled solenoid-operated multi-fuel injector was designed by utilizing the properties and parameters of liquid and gaseous fuel injectors. The designed Multi-fuel injector was modeled in Solid Works and simulated in ANSYS software. The simulated injector was tested with fuels, including gasoline, CNG, and acetylene. Due to a pressure limitation of 5 bar, the designed injector was tested only for low viscous fuels. The injector worked in the velocity range of 70 to 100 m/s. The usage of the Solenoid coil control enabled the injector to function with quick response, injected fuel quantity, and start of injection for various fuels.