Poultry Species Research Articles

The Structural Characteristics, Management, and Challenges of Backyard Poultry Farming in Residential Areas of Turkey.

Simple SummaryRelatively little is known about backyard poultry flocks in urban areas in Turkey, their size and how they are managed. To address this knowledge gap, a semi-structured survey was conducted of backyard poultry owners in Turkey with regard to flock characteristics, management, biosecurity practices and the challenges of backyard poultry flocks. Data derived from 1094 respondents across Turkey showed that the majority of respondents owned small flocks with fewer than 50 birds. Most participants reported keeping poultry as food for family use and free-range coops were the most preferred type of housing. Keeping different poultry species together, which poses a significant biosecurity risk, was reported by 64% of owners. Internal-external parasites, Escherichia coli infections and chronic respiratory diseases were the most common health problems in backyard flocks. Although there is a significant amount of backyard poultry farming activity in residential districts of Turkey, lack of regional regulations and animal theft were the most cited challenges. The results highlighted the need for biosecurity measures and for a regulatory framework that takes into account the risks to commercial poultry flocks and public health. A thorough understanding of the complexities of backyard poultry practices and the needs of backyard breeders will help authorities to design effective policies for the backyard poultry sector in Turkey.The aim of this study was to collect, for the first time, comprehensive information about the backyard poultry sector in Turkey. This included a profile of the poultry owners, flock characteristics, husbandry, housing conditions, the owners’ biosecurity measures and the challenges of backyard poultry farming in residential areas of Turkey. An online semi-structured survey was fully completed by 1094 respondents. The majority of respondents (91%) owned fewer than 50 birds and reported raising other poultry species besides chickens (64%). Most of the participants indicated that they kept poultry as food for family use (83%) and had been involved in chicken-raising activities for less than 10 years (86%). Free-range coops were the type of housing most preferred by the respondents (86%). However, there was a lack of awareness about poultry diseases and poultry health care conditions. Respondents that confirmed wild bird and rodent access to their feeders and drinkers reported high rates of internal-external parasites, Escherichia coli infections and chronic respiratory diseases (p < 0.001). Lack of regional regulations (84%), animal theft (80%), lack of information on poultry management (79%), minimizing predation (75%), and the need for vaccination and veterinary services (73%) were the most cited challenges. The results highlighted the need for improved biosecurity measures and for a regulatory framework that takes into account the risks to commercial poultry flocks and public health.

The Prevalence of Campylobacter in Live Cattle, Turkey, Chicken, and Swine in the United States and Canada: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Campylobacter cause gastroenteritis in humans and may be shed in the feces of livestock and poultry species, including cattle, chicken, turkey, and swine. However, a synthesis of the prevalence on farms in the United States and Canada is currently lacking. Thus, our objective was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the prevalence of Campylobacter coli, Campylobacter jejuni, and Campylobacter spp. on livestock and poultry farms operated under commercial conditions in the United States and Canada. The relevant literature was identified and examined for eligibility based on a priori inclusion and exclusion criteria. Relevant data were extracted, and a meta-analysis was performed. The data were transformed using the Freeman-Tukey arcsine transformation to stabilize the variance. A separate meta-analysis was performed for each animal species, level of sampling (individual versus pooled), and species of Campylobacter, for a total of 29 meta-analyses. C. jejuni and Campylobacter spp. were present in all livestock and poultry species of interest, whereas C. coli was found in all species of interest with the exception of chickens. Furthermore, substantial heterogeneity was observed in most meta-analyses. In an attempt to account for this, subgroup analyses were performed on potential moderators. However, with the exception of beef cattle, where studies in feedlot cattle reported a consistently higher prevalence compared with adult cattle on pasture, significant heterogeneity remained in the majority of meta-analyses after accounting for potential moderators. The results of this review can be used to inform future risk assessment, consumer and producer awareness, and resource allocation, and identify gaps for future research.

Peptide markers for distinguishing guinea fowl meat from that of other species using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry

The inability to easily identify the animal species in highly processed meat products makes them highly susceptible to adulterations. Reliable methods for detecting the species origin of meat used in processed food are required to ensure adequate labelling and minimize food fraud and allergenic potential. Liquid chromatography high resolution mass spectrometry was employed to identify new heat-stable guinea-fowl-specific peptide markers that can differentiate guinea fowl meat from other commonly consumed animal species, including closely related poultry species, in highly processed food products. We identified 26 unique guinea-fowl-specific markers. The high stability of guinea-fowl-specific peptides was confirmed by analysing food products with guinea fowl meat content ranging from 4% to 100%. The findings indicate that sensitive and reliable LC–MS/MS methods can be developed for the targeted detection and quantification of guinea fowl meat in highly processed meat products.

Fasting and overfeeding affect the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes in the liver of poultry via endogenous retrovirus

It is known that nutrition and immunity are connected, but the mechanism is not very clear. Endogenous retroviruses (ERV) account for 8 to 10% of the human and mouse genomes and play an important role in some biological processes of animals. Recent studies indicate that the activation of ERV can affect the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes, and the activities of ERV are subjected to regulation of many factors including nutritional factors. Therefore, we hypothesize that nutritional status can affect the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes via ERV. To verify this hypothesis, the nutritional status of animals was altered by fasting or overfeeding, and the expression of intact ERV (ERVK18P, ERVK25P) and immunity- or inflammation-related genes (DDX41, IFIH1, IFNG, IRF7, STAT3) in the liver was determined by quantitative PCR, followed by overexpressing ERVK25P in goose primary hepatocytes and determining the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes. The data showed that compared with the control group (no fasting), the expression of ERV and the immunity- or inflammation-related genes was increased in the liver of the fasted chickens but decreased in the liver of the fasted geese. Moreover, compared with the control group (routinely fed), the expression of ERV and the immunity- or inflammation-related genes was increased in the liver of the overfed geese. In addition, overexpression of ERVK25P in goose primary hepatocytes can induce the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes. In conclusion, these findings suggest that ERV mediate the effects of fasting and overfeeding on the expression of the immunity- or inflammation-related genes, the mediation varied with poultry species, and ERV and the immunity- or inflammation-related genes may be involved in the development of goose fatty liver. This study provides a potential mechanism for the connection between nutrition and immunity.

Authentication of nine poultry species using high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

The fraudulent substitution of high-quality with lower priced poultry meat is quite conceivable and consumers’ concerns have been reported previously. A reliable authentication of the poultry species is required to control specifications. Consequently, an HPLC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous detection of chicken, duck, goose, guinea fowl, ostrich, pheasant, pigeon, quail and turkey in raw and heated meat was developed. Potential marker peptides were identified by a shotgun proteomic approach (HPLC-QToF-MS/MS) after protein extraction followed by tryptic digestion, testing different conditions for extraction in order to extract a broad spectrum of proteins from each species. The final twenty-eight marker peptides selected, which are specific for one of the nine targeted species each, and one common turkey/chicken peptide were measured by multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) using an optimized extraction protocol. To the best of our knowledge, twenty-three of these marker peptides have not been reported previously. The suitability of the marker peptides was verified by the analysis of 42 different poultry samples from the nine species included in this study. All twenty-nine marker peptides were heat stable.

Assessment of the application for renewal of authorisation of endo-1,4-β-xylanase produced by Aspergillus nigerCBS 109.713 and endo-1,4-β-glucanase produced by Aspergillus nigerDSM 18404 for poultry species, ornamental birds and weaned piglets, from BASF SE.

Natugrain® TS/TS L is the trade name of the feed additive under assessment and contains endo‐1,4‐β‐xylanase and endo‐1,4‐β‐glucanase produced by genetically modified strains of Aspergillus niger. The product is currently authorised for use as a feed additive for poultry species, ornamental birds, weaned piglets and pigs for fattening. This scientific opinion concerns the renewal of the authorisation of this additive for poultry species, ornamental birds and weaned piglets. The applicant provided evidence that the additive in the market complies with the conditions of the authorisation. According to the information provided by the applicant, no new evidence has been identified that would make the FEEDAP Panel reconsider the previous conclusions regarding the safety for the target species, consumer, user and environment under the authorised conditions of use. The additive is safe for the target species for which the renewal of the authorisation is requested, the consumers and the environment. The additive is a potential skin and a respiratory sensitiser. The present application for renewal of the authorisation did not include a proposal for amending or supplementing the conditions of the original authorisation that would have an impact on the efficacy of the additive. Therefore, there was no need for assessing the efficacy of the additive in the context of the renewal of the authorisation.

Occurrence of mycotoxins in complete poultry feeds in the Czech Republic - Multiannual survey (2013-2018)

To assess the contamination and potential health risks for poultry, we investigated concentrations of selected mycotoxins in complete feeds sampled within the period of 2013–2018 in the Czech Republic. Broiler feeds, feeds for laying hens, chickens and/or other poultry species were investigated by ELISA methods or chromatography. Our results demonstrated that unlike other mycotoxins, (such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A or zearalenone), deoxynivalenol (DON) may represent a potential threat. The prevalence of this mycotoxin in all the feed categories was very high, always reaching at least 81.29%. Moreover, in 14 of the 139 analysed broiler feed samples (i.e., in 10.81% of samples), DON was detected in concentrations exceeding the recent guidance value of 5 000 µg/kg established by EU legislation. Since previous studies demonstrated that the long-term feeding of such a highly contaminated diet could cause stress in the animals and could lead to their growth suppression, good agricultural practices and the further systematic monitoring of Czech poultry feeds are still highly needed.

In Vitro and In Ovo Host Restriction of Aquatic Bird Bornavirus 1 in Different Avian Hosts.

Aquatic bird bornavirus 1 (ABBV-1) is associated with chronic meningoencephalitis and ganglioneuritis. Although waterfowl species act as the natural host of ABBV-1, the virus has been sporadically isolated from other avian species, showing the potential for a broad host range. To evaluate the host restriction of ABBV-1, and its potential to infect commercial poultry species, we assessed the ability of ABBV-1 to replicate in cells and embryos of different avian species. ABBV-1 replication was measured using multi- and single-step growth curves in primary embryo fibroblasts of chicken, duck, and goose. Embryonated chicken and duck eggs were infected through either the yolk sac or chorioallantoic cavity, and virus replication was assessed by immunohistochemistry and RT-qPCR in embryonic tissues harvested at two time points after infection. Multi-step growth curves showed that ABBV-1 replicated and spread in goose and duck embryo fibroblasts, establishing a population of persistently infected cells, while it was unable to do so in chicken fibroblasts. Single-step growth curves showed that cells from all three species could be infected; however, persistence was only established in goose and duck fibroblasts. In ovo inoculation yielded no detectable viral replication or lesion in tissues. Data indicate that although chicken, duck, and goose embryo fibroblasts can be infected with ABBV-1, a persistent infection is more easily established in duck and goose cells. Therefore, ABBV-1 may be able to infect chickens in vivo, albeit inefficiently. Additionally, our data indicate that an in ovo model is inadequate to investigating ABBV-1 host restriction and pathogenesis.

Safety and efficacy of Bacillus subtilisPB6 (Bacillus velezensisATCC PTA-6737) as a feed additive for chickens for fattening, chickens reared for laying, minor poultry species (except for laying purposes), ornamental, sporting and game birds.

Following a request from the European Commission, the Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the renewal of the authorisation of Bacillus subtilis PB6, the extension of use to ornamental, sporting and game birds and a modification on the concentration of the said additive. The product under assessment is based on viable spores of a strain originally identified as Bacillus subtilis. During the course of the current assessment, the active agent has been redesignated as Bacillus velezensis ATCC PTA‐6737. The bacterial species B. velezensis is considered suitable for the qualified presumption of safety (QPS) approach to safety assessment. The identity of the active agent is established and the compliance with the other qualifications confirmed. Therefore, B. velezensis ATCC PTA‐6737 is presumed safe for the target species, consumers of products derived from animals fed the additive and the environment. The additive is not a dermal/eye irritant or a skin sensitiser. Exposure via inhalation is unlikely. In the previous assessments performed by the FEEDAP Panel, the additive showed to be efficacious as a zootechnical additive in feedingstuffs for chickens for fattening and chickens reared for laying at the level of 1 × 107 CFU/kg. Considering that efficacy at the same level has been shown, this conclusion is extrapolated to ornamental, sporting and gaming birds.

Safety and efficacy of Correlink™ ABS747 Bacillus subtilis (Bacillus velezensis NRRL B-67257) as a feed additive for all growing poultry species.

Following a request from the European Commission, the Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of Correlink™ ABS747 Bacillus subtilis (hereafter designated as Correlink™ ABS747) when used as a feed additive for chickens for fattening, turkeys for fattening, chickens reared for laying, turkeys reared for breeding and minor growing poultry species. The product under assessment is based on viable spores of a strain originally identified as Bacillus subtilis, which in the course of the current assessment, was reclassified as Bacillus velezensis NRRL B‐67257. The bacterial species B. velezensis is considered suitable for the qualified presumption of safety (QPS) approach to safety assessment. The identity of the active agent was established and it does not harbour acquired antimicrobial resistance genes, lacks toxigenic potential and does not have the capacity to produce aminoglycosides. Following the QPS approach to safety assessment, B. velezensis NRRL B‐67257 is presumed safe for the target species, consumers of products derived from animals fed the additive and the environment. Since no concerns are expected from the other components of the additive, Correlink™ ABS747 is also considered safe for the target species, consumers of products derived from animals fed the additive and the environment. Correlink™ ABS747 is not irritant to skin and eyes or a skin sensitiser but is a respiratory sensitiser. The Panel is not in the position to conclude on the efficacy of Correlink™ ABS747 for the target species due to lack of data.

Safety and efficacy of Correlink™ ABS1781 Bacillus subtilis (Bacillus velezensisNRRL B-67259) as a feed additive for all growing poultry species.

Following a request from the European Commission, the Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of Correlink™ ABS1781 Bacillus subtilis (hereafter designated as Correlink™ ABS1781) when used as a feed additive for chickens for fattening, turkeys for fattening, chickens reared for laying, turkeys reared for breeding and minor growing poultry species. The product under assessment is based on viable spores of a strain originally identified as Bacillus subtilis, which in the course of the current assessment, was reclassified as Bacillus velezensis NRRL B‐67259. The bacterial species B. velezensis is considered suitable for the qualified presumption of safety (QPS) approach to safety assessment. The identity of the active agent was established and it does not harbour acquired antimicrobial resistance genes, lacks toxigenic potential and does not have the capacity to produce aminoglycosides. Following the QPS approach to safety assessment, B. velezensis NRRL B‐67259 is presumed safe for the target species, consumers of products derived from animals fed the additive and the environment. Since no concerns are expected from the other components of the additive, Correlink™ ABS1781 is also considered safe for the target species, consumers of products derived from animals fed the additive and the environment. Correlink™ ABS1781 is not irritant to skin and eyes or a skin sensitiser but is a respiratory sensitiser. The Panel is not in the position to conclude on the efficacy of Correlink™ ABS1781 for the target species due to lack of data.

Effect of Heat Treatment on Protein Fractions of Edible Poultry Eggs

Poultry eggs are highly important in human nutrition due to their content of essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and enzymes. Eggs of edible poultries such as hen, turkey, quail, and goose may have some differences in their nutritional composition. Various heat treatments applied before consumption lead to some alterations in their nutrients, especially proteins. The purpose of this study was to investigate compositional and structural changes in the protein fractions of hen, quail, turkey, and goose eggs when exposed to soft- and hard-boiling (11-16 min and 18-19 min), and frying (2-7 min). Electrophoresis and spectroscopy were used to determine the effects of these heat treatments on egg white and yolk proteins separately. It was observed that the heat degradation of proteins in egg white was higher than that in egg yolk. As expected, protein degradation was increased when heat exposure was extended. Hard-boiling treatment completely denatured egg white proteins almost in all poultry species. Ovomucoid was the most resistant fraction against heat denaturation in white proteins, while livetins in yolk. Soft-boiling under the given conditions resulted in mostly retained profiles of proteins in egg yolk of all species. Relevant to protein degradation, remarkable structural changes were detected in the protein secondary structure of hard-boiled and fried egg samples. Significant data obtained in this research revealed the influence of heat treatment on the protein content of edible eggs. Those findings are expected to help in developing the processes and consumption methods of egg products for dietary purposes and improvement of human health.

Isolation of Arcobacter spp. and identification of isolates by multiplex PCR from various domestic poultry and wild avian species

PurposeThe purpose of the present study was to determine the extent and seasonal prevalence of Arcobacter spp. in domestic poultry and wild birds in the Kars region of Turkey using multiplex polymerase chain reaction (m-PCR).MethodsIn this study, 1570 samples were collected from domestic poultry and wild avian species. The numbers of collected samples were as follows: 182 fecal samples from chickens, geese, and turkeys from family farms in the Kars region in Turkey; 1089 cloacal swab samples from chickens, geese, ducks, turkeys, and quails from family farms in this region; and 299 fecal samples from wild pigeons, crows, and owls in the same region.ResultsArcobacter spp. were isolated from 17.43%, 35.77%, 3.63%, 6.87%, and 3.33% of the cloacal swab samples obtained from geese, ducks, chickens, turkeys, and quails, respectively. In the stool samples, Arcobacter spp. were isolated from 9.62%, 13.33%, and 4% of chicken, goose, and turkey samples, respectively. In wild birds, the isolation rates of Arcobacter spp. were 6.6%, 12.15%, and 0% in pigeons, crows, and owls, respectively. Using m-PCR, among 171 Arcobacter spp. isolates obtained from poultry and wild birds, 67, 78, 24, and 2 were identified as Arcobacter cryaerophilus, Arcobacter butzleri, Arcobacter skirrowii, and Arcobacter cibarius, respectively.ConclusionsBoth poultry and wild avian species exhibited variable rates of Arcobacter species positivity. The presence of Arcobacter spp. in the digestive tracts of healthy poultry and wild birds may serve as a potential reservoir for the dissemination of these microbes in the environment and their transmission to other animals and humans.

Comparison of Egg Quality Characteristics of Different Poultry Species

This study was conducted to compare external and internal quality attributes and some functional property parameters of eggs from five different poultry types/species namely, Sri Lankan village chicken &amp;amp; commercial chicken (Shaver brown), duck (Vigoa), quail (Japanese quail) and turkey (Turkey white). In addition, the impacts of cold storage (10 &amp;ordm;C), on commercial chicken eggs and Sri Lankan village chicken eggs, over a period of three weeks were evaluated. Yolk color, shape index, egg weigh and shell thickness values of the freshly laid eggs were significantly difference among the four species (P &amp;lt; 0.05). Yolk color of the village chicken egg was 7.30 which is significantly higher (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than that of other species. Quail egg had the highest (P &amp;lt; 0.05) shape index value (80.90&amp;plusmn;0.01) and the lowest egg weight (9.47&amp;plusmn;5.64 g). Whereas, turkey egg had the lowest (P &amp;lt; 0.05) shape index value (69.20&amp;plusmn;0.02) and the highest egg weight (71.48&amp;plusmn;5.21 g). Village chicken eggs and quail eggs had significantly lower (P &amp;lt; 0.05) eggshell thickness than that of other poultry species. The lowest eggshell thickness (0.008&amp;plusmn;0.00 mm) was shown by quail eggs. Duck egg white had the highest (P &amp;lt; 0.05) viscosity and foam stability whereas, commercial egg had the lowest viscosity. Further, internal quality and functional quality traits from Sri Lankan village chicken eggs and Shaver brown eggs were decreased with the increasing storage period (3 weeks) at 10 &amp;ordm;C. Quail egg has the highest shape index and duck egg white has the highest viscosity and foam stability. Some of the egg quality traits are significantly affected by type/species of the bird and the storage time.

Hydroxymethylbilane synthase (HMBS) gene-based endogenous internal control for avian species

With PCR becoming one of the most important and widely-used diagnostic tools for infectious diseases of poultry, an urgent need has developed for an endogenous internal control (EIC) that monitors the quality and quantity of poultry DNA in test samples. In this study we developed a SYBR-qPCR to target the poultry homolog of the hydroxymethylbilane synthase (HMBS) gene as an EIC for avian species. The avian HMBS-based qPCR was very sensitive, detecting one HMBS gene copy in a 20 µL reaction, and is highly specific for avian species. It amplified DNA from 11 organs and tissues of chickens showing it can be used as an EIC on a large variety of samples. The application of the established EIC on clinically and experimentally infected samples demonstrated that false negativity and result variations could result from samples being collected using different operators, techniques, preservatives, and storage times. The high sensitivity and specificity of the avian HMBS-based qPCR, its ability to quantify DNAs extracted from a wide range of tissues and poultry species along with its usefulness in reducing false negativity in PCR results associated with inadequate sampling and storage degradation makes it an ideal EIC for poultry DNA and RNA PCR diagnostics. The study also highlights the importance of appropriate sampling and storage of samples in ensuring accuracy of molecular diagnostic testing.

Bactericidal activity of disinfectants

The modern market of drugs off ers a wide range of disinfectants. However, the constant use of the same drugs contributes to the development of resistance in the microfl ora and reduces the quality of activities. In this regard to develop eff ective measures to combat and prevent infectious diseases, it is necessary to periodically monitor the activity of disinfectants used in the enterprise. The purpose of the researches was to study the bactericidal eff ect of disinfectants on the microfl ora of poultry enterprises. The researches have been carried out at the Siberian Scientifi c and Research Institute of Poultry Farming – a branch of the Federal State Budgetary Scientifi c Institution “Omsk Agrarian Scientifi c Center”. The activity of 8 disinfectants to 37 test cultures isolated from poultry farms of diff erent productivity trends and species of poultry (chickens, turkeys, quails) has been tested. It has been found as a result of the conducted research that the most expressed bactericidal eff ect on gram-positive and gram-negative microorganisms were complex disinfectants, which included glutaraldehyde in combination with quaternary ammonium compounds. Thus, 1 % solutions of Gludesive and Viroshield provided the death of all test cultures, Dinovis Ultra and TN-4+ – 92 and 84 % of cultures. The disinfecting activity of Mirosan drug and formalin was most expressed for gram-positive microfl ora, among gram-negative microfl ora resistance was registered in 25–75 % and 25–50 % of cultures, respectively. Drugs EcoSide Advansa and Ecocide C have showed the lowest activity to all investigated microorganisms. The largest number of resistant cultures to the tested disinfectants have been registered in the bacteria of the genus Citrobacter spp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, while simultaneously noted resistance to 4–6 drugs.

A novel quantitative real-time PCR method for the detection of mammalian and poultry species based on a shared single-copy nuclear DNA sequence

Accurate quantification of species fractions is critical to determine meat adulteration. This study aimed to develop a novel quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) method for detection of mammalian and poultry DNA. A shared single-copy nuclear DNA sequence derived from the first exon of the LcoR gene was identified as a multi-species universal reference for a qRT-PCR assay. The conservation and copy number of the LcoR gene were evaluated among different species. The limit of detection was 0.01 ng DNA or 0.01% meat ingredient, and the limit of quantification was 0.01 ng DNA or 0.05% meat ingredient. Both the relative error (R.E.) and relative standard deviation (R.S.D.) were ≤ 25%. Moreover, modified coefficient k was introduced into this quantitative system to improve the accuracy and reliability of results, with maximum R.E. improved from 19.43% to 16.16%. The quantitative method would contribute to fighting against meat adulteration and maintaining a fair market.

Qualidade, avaliação e tipificação de carcaças das principais espécies de interesse zootécnico: bovina, suína e aves

As cadeias produtivas de proteínas animais têm evoluído e se adequado a nichos de ofertas e demandas no cenário mundial. As prerrogativas de produção e processamentos de carnes exigiram ao longo do tempo normas de bem-estar animal, boas práticas de fabricação, classificação e tipificação de carcaças. Cada espécie se ajusta com relação a esses protocolos de pré e produção, com seus gargalos e ajustes, bem como seus procedimentos que se alteram no momento de avaliação de qualidade e tipificação de carcaças. O intuito vai além de atender a vários tipos de normatizações ao longo do mundo, bem como demandas de consumidores e exigências de mercado. Quando se trata das principais proteínas animais consumidas, de suíno, bovino e de aves, se avaliam diversos nichos principais: o nicho brasileiro para consumo interno e os diferentes nichos de exportação. Com base nisso, objetivou-se revisar as normas de pré-produção, produção, diretrizes de bem-estar animal bem como classificação e tipificação de carcaça das espécies suínas, bovinas e aves.

Temminck's Gallus giganteus; a gigantic obstacle to Darwin's theory of domesticated fowl origin?

In 1813, based on the single foot of a large chicken, Temminck named a ‘new' species of junglefowl, Gallus giganteus. He considered this ‘species’ the ancestor of several large domesticated chicken breeds and believed it was one of six wild ancestral species of domestic fowl. Temminck's hypothesis was rejected by Blyth who thought Red Junglefowl G. gallus was the sole ancestor. The arrival into Britain of several very large Asian chicken breeds in the mid-19th century led to speculation that Temminck's G. giganteus may have been their wild ancestor. Darwin, who had initially agreed with Blyth, noted several peculiarities in the Cochin, a large Asian breed, which he concluded might not have been achieved by selective breeding, and questioned whether G. giganteus was involved in their ancestry. Temminck's giant junglefowl appeared to be a significant hurdle for Darwin in his effort to prove a single ancestral origin for domestic chickens.‘My very decided opinion, that we may seek in vain for wild types of G. giganteus' (letter from Blyth to Darwin, 1856).‘We have not such good evidence with fowls as with pigeons, of all breeds having descended from a single primitive stock' (Darwin 1868: 239).

Pathogenicity of West Nile Virus Lineage 1 to German Poultry.

West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne virus that originates from Africa and at present causes neurological disease in birds, horses, and humans all around the globe. As West Nile fever is an important zoonosis, the role of free-ranging domestic poultry as a source of infection for humans should be evaluated. This study examined the pathogenicity of an Italian WNV lineage 1 strain for domestic poultry (chickens, ducks, and geese) held in Germany. All three species were subcutaneously injected with WNV, and the most susceptible species was also inoculated via mosquito bite. All species developed various degrees of viremia, viral shedding (oropharyngeal and cloacal), virus accumulation, and pathomorphological lesions. Geese were most susceptible, displaying the highest viremia levels. The tested waterfowl, geese, and especially ducks proved to be ideal sentinel species for WNV due to their high antibody levels and relatively low blood viral loads. None of the three poultry species can function as a reservoir/amplifying host for WNV, as their viremia levels most likely do not suffice to infect feeding mosquitoes. Due to the recent appearance of WNV in Germany, future pathogenicity studies should also include local virus strains.