Honey Bee Species Research Articles

Foraging behavior of major insect pollinators on Pumpkin, Cucurbitamoschata (Duch.ex Lam)

Foraging activity period of different honey bee species on C. moschata (C-1076) flowers at different day hours during August-September (2013) revealed that A. dorsata, A. mellifera, A. cerana and A. florea initiated their activity early in the morning at 0530, 0615, 0625 and 0630 h, respectively and stopped their activity at 1030, 1020, 1025 and 1030 h of the day, respectively while on C. moschata (C-1106, A. dorsata, A. mellifera, A. cerana and A. florea initiated their activity early in the morning at 0535, 0615, 0620 and 0625 h, respectively and ceased their activity at 1045, 1025, 1015 and 1040 h of the day, respectively. The mean foraging speed (time spent per flower) in seconds on flowers of pumpkin (C-1106) was maximum of A. florea (181.72), followed by A. mellifera (7.15), A. cerana (6.05) and A. dorsata spent least time (5.83) and in pumpkin (C-1076), foraging speed was maximum in case of A. florea (178.71), followed by A. mellifera (7.63), A. cerana (6.24) and A. dorsata spent least time (6.06). The mean foraging rate (flowers visited per minute) on flowers of pumpkin (C-1106) was maximum in case of A. dorsata (5.13), followed by A. cerana (4.30), A. mellifera (4.16) and A. florea visited least flower (0.32) and in pumpkin (C-1076), foraging rate was maximum in case of A. dorsata (4.96), followed by A. cerana (4.19), A. mellifera (4.02) and A. florea visited least flower (0.33). Present study advises the farmers that they should not apply the pesticide when the activity of honey bee is on the peak period because pesticides application at the time of bee activity in the field crop causes mortality of bees.

Detection of Korean Native Honey and European Honey by Using Duplex Polymerase Chain Reaction and Immunochromatographic Assay.

Korean native honey (KNH) is much more expensive than European honey (EH) in Korea, because KNH is a favored honey which is produced less than EH. Food fraud of KNH has drawn attention of the government office concerned, which is in need of a method to differentiate between KNH and EH which are produced by the Asiatic honeybee, Apis cerana and the European honeybee, Apis mellifera, respectively. A method to discriminate KNH and EH was established by using duplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in this study. Immunochromatographic assay (IC) was examined to analyze the duplex PCR product. The DNA sequences of primers for the duplex PCR were determined by comparing cytochrome C oxidase genes of the two honey bee species. Chelex resin method was more efficient in extracting genomic DNA from honey than the other two procedures of commercial kits. The duplex PCR amplifying DNA of 133 bp were more sensitive than that amplifying DNA of 206 bp in detecting EH in the honey mixture of KNH and EH. Agarose gel electrophoresis and IC detected the DNA of 133 bp at the ratios of down to 1% and 5% EH in the honey mixture, respectively and also revealed that several KNH products distributed by internet shopping sites were actually EH. In conclusion, the duplex PCR with subsequent IC could also discriminate between KNH and EH and save time and labor.

The complete mitochondrial genome of the cavity-nesting honeybee, Apis cerana (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Apidae) from Borneo

The complete mitochondrial genome of the cavity-nesting honeybee Apis cerana from Sabah on Borneo Island was analyzed using next-generation sequencing. The mitochondrial genome of A. cerana was a circular molecule of 15,884 bp and was similar to that of the other cavity-nesting honeybee species. The average AT content in the A. cerana mitochondrial genome was 84.4%. It was predicted to contain 13 protein-coding, 22 tRNA, and two rRNA genes, along with one A + T-rich control region.

Foragers of sympatric Asian honey bee species intercept competitor signals by avoiding benzyl acetate from Apis cerana alarm pheromone

While foraging, animals can form inter- and intraspecific social signalling networks to avoid similar predators. We report here that foragers of different native Asian honey bee species can detect and use a specialized alarm pheromone component, benzyl acetate (BA), to avoid danger. We analysed the volatile alarm pheromone produced by attacked workers of the most abundant native Asian honey bee, Apis cerana and tested the responses of other bee species to these alarm signals. As compared to nest guards, A. cerana foragers produced 3.38 fold higher levels of BA. In foragers, BA and (E)-dec-2-en-1-yl acetate (DA) generated the strongest antennal electrophysiological responses. BA was also the only compound that alerted flying foragers and inhibited A. cerana foraging. BA thereby decreased A. cerana foraging for risky sites. Interestingly, although BA occurs only in trace amounts and is nearly absent in sympatric honeybee species (respectively only 0.07% and 0.44% as much in A. dorsata and A. florea), these floral generalists detected and avoided BA as strongly as they did to their own alarm pheromone on natural inflorescences. These results demonstrate that competing pollinators can take advantage of alarm signal information provided by other species.

Thinking beyond Western commercial honeybee hives: towards improved conservation of honey bee diversity

A decline of wild pollinators, along with a decline of bee diversity, has been a cause of concern among academics and governmental organizations. According to IPBES, a lack of wild pollinator data contributes to difficulties in comprehensively analyzing the regional status of wild pollinators in Africa, Latin America, Asia and Oceania. It may have also contributed to the prevailing lack of awareness of the diversity of honey bees, of which the managed Apis mellifera is often considered as “the (only) honey bee,” despite the fact that there are eight other honey bee species extant in Asia. A survey of 100 journal articles published in 2016 shows that 57% of the studies still identified A. mellifera as “the honey bee.” In total, 80% of studies were conducted solely on A. mellifera. This focus on A. mellifera has also caused the honey standard of Codex Alimentarius and the European Union to be based solely on A. mellifera, causing improper evaluation of honeys from other species. We recommend adapting current standards to reflect the diversity of honey bees and in the process correct failures in the honey market and pave the way towards improved protection of honey bee species and their habitats.

Landscape effects on pollinator communities and pollination services in small-holder agroecosystems

Abstract Pollination by insects is key for the productivity of many fruit and non-graminous seed crops, but little is known about the response of pollinators to landscapes dominated by small-holder agriculture. Here we assess the relationships between landscape context, pollinator communities (density and diversity) and pollination of oilseed rape in 18 landscapes with proportions of small-holder farming ranging from 10% to 70% in southern China. To quantify the contribution of pollinators to oilseed rape yield, we manipulated pollinator access in a focal oilseed rape field in each landscape using open and closed cages. The pollinator communities in the focal fields were sampled using pan traps. The abundance of wild pollinators increased significantly with the proportion of cultivated land, but the diversity of the wild pollinator communities declined. The responses of pollinator abundance and diversity to cultivated land were best explained at scales of around 1000 m. The abundance of the unmanaged honey bee Apis cerana was positively associated with the proportion of cultivated land, whereas the abundance of the managed A. mellifera was not. A pollination services index (PSI) was calculated by comparing the reproductive investment in seeds between plants with or without pollinator access. PSI was positively correlated with wild pollinator abundance, but not with the abundance of honeybee species. PSI was also not significantly correlated with the area proportion of cultivated land. Our results indicate that crop dominated landscapes with numerous small fields supported an abundant, but relatively species poor bee community that delivered pollination services to oilseed rape. Conservation of (semi-)natural habitats, however, is important for maintaining the diversity of wild pollinators.

Foraging behavior of major insect pollinators on pumpkin, Cucurbita moschata (Duch.ex Lam)

Foraging activity period of different honey bee species on C. moschata (C-1076) flowers at different day hours during August-September (2013) revealed that A. dorsata, A. mellifera, A. cerana and A. florea initiated their activity early in the morning at 0530, 0615, 0625 and 0630 h, respectively and stopped their activity at 1030, 1020, 1025 and 1030 h of the day, respectively while on C. moschata (C-1106, A. dorsata, A. mellifera, A. cerana and A. florea initiated their activity early in the morning at 0535, 0615, 0620 and 0625 h, respectively and ceased their activity at 1045, 1025, 1015 and 1040 h of the day, respectively. The mean foraging speed (time spent per flower) in seconds on flowers of pumpkin (C-1106) was maximum of A. florea (181.72), followed by A. mellifera (7.15), A. cerana (6.05) and A. dorsata spent least time (5.83) and in pumpkin (C-1076), foraging speed was maximum in case of A. florea (178.71), followed by A. mellifera (7.63), A. cerana (6.24) and A. dorsata spent least time (6.06). The mean foraging rate (flowers visited per minute) on flowers of pumpkin (C-1106) was maximum in case of A. dorsata (5.13), followed by A. cerana (4.30), A. mellifera (4.16) and A. florea visited least flower (0.32) and in pumpkin (C-1076), foraging rate was maximum in case of A. dorsata (4.96), followed by A. cerana (4.19), A. mellifera (4.02) and A. florea visited least flower (0.33). Present study advises the farmers that they should not apply the pesticide when the activityof honey bee is on the peak period because pesticides application at the time of bee activity in the field crop causes mortality of bees.

Yearlong association of Apis dorsata and Apis florea with flowering plants: planted forest vs. agricultural landscape

The yearlong association of two native honey bee species (Apis dorsata and A. florea) with 49 plant species was recorded in a planted forest and adjacent agricultural landscape at Multan, Pakistan. The study resulted in 588 interactions of A. dorsata with 40 plant species and 454 interactions of A. florea on 38 plant species. The most visited plants species by A. dorsata included Helianthus annuus, Citrus reticulata, Trifolium alexandrinum, Moringa oleifera and Calotropis procera, while the most visited plant species by A. florea included C. procera, Mangifera indica, T. alexandrinum, Coriandrum sativum and H. annuus. The peak abundance of bees and floral resources (i.e. number of plant species in flowering and abundance of floral units) was recorded during early March to late May followed by a gradual decline until December. Monthly abundance of both bee species was positively related to the floral resources, negatively related to relative humidity while it was not significantly related to temperature. The current study may serve as a baseline to track the degradation in ecosystem service of cross pollination and making new conservation strategies at local scale while future research should focus on tempo-spatial variations in foraging preferences, floral constancy and effect of foraging competition on crop pollination in different ecological regions of Pakistan.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the honeybee Apis cerana native to two remote islands in Japan

The honeybee species native to two remote islands (Amami-Oshima and Tsushima) in Japan were previously reported to be morphologically distinct from the Japanese honeybee Apis cerana japonica. To our knowledge, this is the first study to analyze the complete mitochondrial genome of the honeybee species from the two islands. The mitochondrial genome was a circular and approximately 1.5 kbp molecule that included 13 protein-cording genes (PCGs), 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes, and 1 AT-rich control region. The average AT content of the mitochondrial genome was 84%. The genetic distance suggested that the honeybee species from the two remote islands were more closely related to A. cerana japonica, among the A. cerana subspecies. Although the mitochondrial genome of the honeybee species from the two remote islands showed genetic variation distinct from those found in the A. cerana group, they were classified as the Japanese honeybee A. cerana japonica.

The dynamic association between ovariole loss and sterility in adult honeybee workers.

In the social insects, ovary state (the presence or absence of mature oocytes) and ovary size (the number of ovarioles) are often used as proxies for the reproductive capacity of an individual worker. Ovary size is assumed to be fixed post-eclosion whereas ovary state is demonstrably plastic post-eclosion. Here, we show that in fact ovary size declines as honeybee workers age. This finding is robust across two honeybee species: Apis mellifera and A. cerana The ovariole loss is likely to be due to the regression of particular ovarioles via programmed cell death. We also provide further support for the observation that honeybee workers with activated ovaries (mature oocytes present) most commonly have five ovarioles rather than a greater or smaller number. This result suggests that workers with more than five ovarioles are unable to physiologically support more than five activated ovarioles and that workers with fewer than five ovarioles are below a threshold necessary for ovary activation. As a worker's ovariole number declines with age, studies on worker ovariole number need to take this plasticity into account.

Volatile organic compounds of Thai honeys produced from several floral sources by different honey bee species.

The volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of four monofloral and one multifloral of Thai honeys produced by Apis cerana, Apis dorsata and Apis mellifera were analyzed by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) followed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The floral sources were longan, sunflower, coffee, wild flowers (wild) and lychee. Honey originating from longan had more VOCs than all other floral sources. Sunflower honey had the least numbers of VOCs. cis-Linalool oxide, trans-linalool oxide, ho-trienol, and furan-2,5-dicarbaldehyde were present in all the honeys studied, independent of their floral origin. Interestingly, 2-phenylacetaldehyde was detected in all honey sample except longan honey produced by A. cerana. Thirty-two VOCs were identified as possible floral markers. After validating differences in honey volatiles from different floral sources and honeybee species, the results suggest that differences in quality and quantity of honey volatiles are influenced by both floral source and honeybee species. The group of honey volatiles detected from A. cerana was completely different from those of A. mellifera and A. dorsata. VOCs could therefore be applied as chemical markers of honeys and may reflect preferences of shared floral sources amongst different honeybee species.

Dynamics of climate and pollinator species influencing litchi (Litchi chinensis) in India

The studies on pollinator complex and their impact on fruit set, yield and quality characters of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) cv Shahi with reference to Apis mellifera L. was carried at ICAR-NRC on Litchi, Muzaffarpur (Bihar) India, during 2014-15. The 20 pollinator species under 23 genera of 8 families belonging to orders Diptera, Hymenoptera and Coleoptera were recorded. Honey bee species Apis dorsata F; Apis mellifera L; Apis cerana F. and Apis florea F. were the most important and efficient pollinators of litchi flowers and constitutes more than 65% of the total pollinators. Other than Apis genera important pollinators were Episyrphus balteatus, Melipona sp, Syrpus sp, Erisyrphus sp, etc. The activity of A. mellifera visiting the flowers was highest (9.66 foragers/panicle/5 min). Correlation and regression analysis revealed that all honey bee species differed in their responses to temperature, light intensity and solar radiation, the three most important factors in foraging behavior. The yield was significantly higher in completely open pollinated plant as compared to A. mellifera pollinated plant. The qualitative and quantitative parameters, viz. fruit size, fruit weight, the maximum seed weight, seed size and TSS were found higher with open pollinated plants followed by A. mellifera pollination.

Beekeeping from Antiquity Through the Middle Ages.

Beekeeping had its origins in honey hunting-the opportunistic stealing of honey from wild honey bee nests. True beekeeping began when humans started providing artificial cavities within which the bees could build comb for the queen to lay her eggs and the workers could process honey. By 2450 BCE, the Egyptians had developed sophisticated apiculture, and, within two millennia, beekeeping with horizontal hives had spread throughout the Mediterranean. During Europe's Middle Ages, honey and wax became important commodities for trade, and beekeeping in skep, log, box, and tree hives flourished to meet the demand. Other species of honey bees contributed to the development and spread of beekeeping in Asia beginning around 300 BCE. Meanwhile, beekeeping evolved independently in Mesoamerica with the stingless bee Melipona beecheii, as documented by archaeological finds and written accounts that survived Spanish conquest.

Foraging Behaviour of Honeybees on Jatropha integerrima

Study conducted on foraging behaviour of Apis mellifera and A. florea on Jatropha integerrima revealed that this ornamental plant provided a good forage to honeybees during various seasons of year, when floral scarcity was prevailing(floral dearth period), A. mellifera and A. florea commenced their foraging activity at about 630 and 715 hours respectively. Both species of honeybees showed peak foraging activity from 800 to 900 hours. Relative abundance was more in case of A. florea as compared to A. mellifera. Most of foragers were pollen gatherers. Number of flowers visited per unit time was significantly more in case of A.mellifera as compared to that of A. florea. Foraging behaviour of honeybees revealed that shrub under experiment was of considerable importance for beekeeping.

The complete mitochondrial genome and phylogenetic placement of Apis nigrocincta Smith (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Apidae), an Asian, cavity-nesting honey bee

The complete mitochondrial genome of Apis nigrocincta was sequenced. The mitochondrial genome is a circular molecule of 15,855 bp, including 37 classical eukaryotic mitochondrial regions and an A + T-rich region. Gene directions and arrangements are similar to those of other Apis mitogenomes. Most genes initiated with ATT, though ATG and ATA were also used as start codons. Twelve of 13 protein-coding genes terminated with TAA, though ND2 terminated with TAG. Four PCG genes, eight tRNAs and both rRNAs were encoded on the heavy strand while all others were encoded on the light strand (9 PCGs and 14 tRNAs). Overall, the GC content composed 15.6% of the mitogenome. All of the 22 tRNA genes, ranging from 66 to 114 bp, have a typical cloverleaf structure. A phylogenetic tree showed that A. nigrocincta clustered closest to A. cerana. The complete mitogenome of A. nigrocincta provides essential information on the biogeography and evolution of this Asian honey bee species.

Perspectives and Challenges of Apiculture for Sustainable Agriculture under Changing Climatic Conditions

Looming dangers of food insecurity in the present millennium brought about by exploding population, coupled with a decrease in per capita availability of arable land has necessitated the attention of policy makers and planners in India to evolve an agenda ensuring sustainable livelihoods, natural resource use optimization and ecosystem protection through off-farm food and income generating activities and programs. In this scenario, beekeeping is destined to play a crucial role. In the present context of commercialization of agriculture and liberalization of Indian economy, beekeeping covers the entire scope of honeybee resources, bee products, beekeeping practices, pollination services and their interface with economic/business systems and environmental integrity. The potential for beekeeping in India is yet to be realized and according to a rough estimate this figure is merely 10 per cent. It is also well documented that the bulk of the honey and beeswax produced and consumed within the country comes from indigenous honeybee species namely Apis dorsata F., A. laboriosa S. and A. florea. F. A significant number of traditional communities depend upon these wild bee species for their livelihood seasonally. Also, these indigenous honeybee species play a very important role in preserving the biodiversity of local flora and fauna. There is a significant untapped diversity of scientific and practical knowledge available within the country. Several aspects have been studied in much details, but this knowledge has not been widely disseminated. In general, a little is known about the overall status of research, training and extension systems, primarily because of a lack of coordination amongst various implementing agencies and lack of databases. Pollination and its practical application are still knowledge for insiders and a broad level outreach of this aspect is lacking. There is thus an obvious need for reorienting policies and programs in the country for revitalizing the beekeeping industry thereby resulting in a paradigm shift towards more productive and sustainable apiculture. So, in the present paper, major constraints and strategies for rapid development of beekeeping in India under changing climatic conditions have been suggested.

The complete mitochondrial genome of the cavity-nesting honeybee, Apis koschevnikovi (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Apidae)

In this study, we analyzed the complete mitochondrial genome of the cavity-nesting honeybee, A. koschevnikovi. The mitochondrial genome of A. koschevnikovi was observed to be a circular molecule of 15,278 bp and was similar to that of the other cavity-nesting honeybee species. The average AT content in the A. koschevnikovi mitochondrial genome was 84%. It was predicted to contain 13 protein-coding, 24 tRNA and two rRNA genes, along with one A + T-rich control region, besides three tRNA-Met repeats.

A New Metazoan Recombination Rate Record and Consistently High Recombination Rates in the Honey Bee Genus Apis Accompanied by Frequent Inversions but Not Translocations.

Western honey bees (Apis mellifera) far exceed the commonly observed 1–2 meiotic recombination events per chromosome and exhibit the highest Metazoan recombination rate (20 cM/Mb) described thus far. However, the reasons for this exceptional rate of recombination are not sufficiently understood. In a comparative study, we report on the newly constructed genomic linkage maps of Apis florea and Apis dorsata that represent the two honey bee lineages without recombination rate estimates so far. Each linkage map was generated de novo, based on SNP genotypes of haploid male offspring of a single female. The A. florea map spans 4,782 cM with 1,279 markers in 16 linkage groups. The A. dorsata map is 5,762 cM long and contains 1,189 markers in 16 linkage groups. Respectively, these map sizes result in average recombination rate estimates of 20.8 and 25.1 cM/Mb. Synteny analyses indicate that frequent intra-chromosomal rearrangements but no translocations among chromosomes accompany the high rates of recombination during the independent evolution of the three major honey bee lineages. Our results imply a common cause for the evolution of very high recombination rates in Apis. Our findings also suggest that frequent homologous recombination during meiosis might increase ectopic recombination and rearrangements within but not between chromosomes. It remains to be investigated whether the resulting inversions may have been important in the evolutionary differentiation between honey bee species.

Comparison of Pollinating Activities on Cherry Flower by Honeybee (Apis mellifera), Bumblebee (Bombus terrestris) and Hornfaced Bee (Osmia cornifrons)

체리농가에서 체리의 인공 수분을 대체하고 더불어 이상 기상환경 하에서 자연수분을 약점을 보완하고자 양봉꿀벌 등 3종의 화분매개곤충을 투입하여 체리의 화분매개활동 특성과 착과율 및 상품성, 경제적 수익률 등을 분석하였다. 투입된 화분매개곤충별 소문 출입활동은 양봉꿀벌의 경우 9시에 활동정점을 보인 후 11시부터 17시까지 꾸준한 활동을 보였으며, 서양뒤영벌의 경우 9시부터 17시까지 출입활동에 큰 차이 없었고, 머리뿔가위벌의 경우 11시에서 13시까지 활동정점을 보인 후 감소추세를 보였다. 봉종별 화분매개활동은 꿀벌과 서양뒤영벌의 경우 9시부터 11시까지 매개활동이 왕성하나 그 이후 낮아지는 경향을 보였으며, 머리뿔가위벌의 경우 13시에서 15시 사이에 정점을 보인 후 감소하는 경향을 보였다. 착과율 조사에서 양봉꿀벌 16.1%, 서양뒤영벌 12.7%, 머리뿔가위벌 6.5%로 나타났으며 전체적으로 착과율은 20% 미만으로 매우 낮은 경향을 보였으며 이 결과는 발아기 저온현상과 결실기의 이상 고온으로 인한 결실불량에 의한 착과율의 심각한 감소를 초래한 것으로 판단된다. 시험곤충별 화분매개활동에 의한 체리의 생산물 품질에서 과중은 양봉꿀벌과 서양뒤영벌, 머리뿔가위벌 방사구가 각각 5.9g, 5.7g, 5.6g으로 서로 비슷한 경향이었으며 자연수분구 3.8g보다 무겁게 나타났다. 당도는 각 시험곤충별로 차이가 있었는데 양봉꿀벌과 서양뒤영벌 방사구에서 각각 21.9 Brix(%), 20.9 Brix(%)로서 머리뿔가위벌과 자연수분구 보다 높아 상품성이 매우 높은 것으로 나타났으며, 체리의 화분매개곤충 종별 경제성 조사에서 양봉꿀벌 방사구가 순수익이 10,434천원/990㎡으로 자연수분구의 순수익 8,820천원/990㎡ 대비 118%의 이익이 생겼고, 서양뒤영벌 방사구는 9,865천원/990㎡으로 자연수분구 대비 112%의 이익이 더 발생하였다. 머리뿔가위벌 방사구는 순수익이 8,878천원/990㎡으로 자연수분구 대비 순수익 증가분이 거의 없어 경제적으로 체리의 화분매개곤충으로서 적합도가 낮은 것으로 조사되었다.

Differential gene expressions of innate immune related genes of the Asian honeybee, Apis cerana, latently infected with sacbrood virus

The Asian honeybee, Apis cerana, is a native honeybee species in Korea which is important in agriculture for pollination and honey production. Since 2009, A. cerana in Korea has been endangered because of the outbreak of sacbrood virus (SBV) disease which caused serious colony loss. SBV belongs to the genus Iflavirus, and infects the honeybee larvae specifically to cause larval death. For better understanding of the molecular biological aspects of the viral pathogen and insect host, the A. cerana larvae latently infected with SBV virus (AcSBV) and control (AcCtrl) were subjected to high-throughput transcriptome sequencing to compare the gene expression profiles. 101 base paired-end Illumina sequencing generated a total of 211,850,996 and 231,925,174 clean reads from AcSBV and AcCtrl, corresponding to 17.4 Gb and 18.7 Gb of nucleotides, respectively. An in silico cDNA library was constructed by Trinity de novo assembler and TGICL clustering program to make a reference cDNA library containing 67,750 contigs. The quality-filtered Illumina short reads were mapped to the cDNA library, and the top 20,000 of the most frequently mapped contigs by the Bowtie2 program were subjected to the ImmunoDB database to annotate insect innate immune-related genes. The genes with expression levels which were two fold higher or lower in AcSBV compared to the AcCtrl, overall a total of 20 contigs were identified and annotated to demonstrate that the latent infection of SBV affects expression pattern of innate immune-related genes.