Flea Species Research Articles

Bacterial communities of disease vectors sampled across time, space, and species.

A common strategy of pathogenic bacteria is to form close associations with parasitic insects that feed on animals and to use these insects as vectors for their own transmission. Pathogens interact closely with other coexisting bacteria within the insect, and interactions between co-occurring bacteria may influence the vector competency of the parasite. Interactions between particular lineages can be explored through measures of alpha-diversity. Furthermore, general patterns of bacterial community assembly can be explored through measures of beta-diversity. Here, we use pyrosequencing (n=115,924 16S rRNA gene sequences) to describe the bacterial communities of 230 prairie dog fleas sampled across space and time. We use these communinty characterizations to assess interactions between dominant community members and to explore general patterns of bacterial community assembly in fleas. An analysis of co-occurrence patterns suggests non-neutral negative interactions between dominant community members (P<0.001). Furthermore, bacterial communities of fleas shift dramatically across years (phylotype-based: R=0.829, P<0.001; phylogenetic-based: R=0.612-0.753, P<0.001), but they also significantly differ across space (phylotype-based: R=0.418, P<0.001; phylogenetic-based: R=0.290-0.328, P<0.001) and between flea species (phylotype-based: R=0.160, P=0.011; phylogenetic-based: not significant). Collectively, our results show that flea-associated bacterial communities are not random assemblages; rather, an individual flea's bacterial community is governed by interactions between bacterial lineages and by the flea's place in space and time.

Flea Diversity and Infestation Prevalence on Rodents in a Plague-Endemic Region of Uganda

In Uganda, the West Nile region is the primary epidemiologic focus for plague. The aims of this study were to 1) describe flea-host associations within a plague-endemic region of Uganda, 2) compare flea loads between villages with or without a history of reported human plague cases and between sampling periods, and 3) determine vector loads on small mammal hosts in domestic, peridomestic, and sylvatic settings. We report that the roof rat, Rattus rattus, is the most common rodent collected in human dwellings in each of the 10 villages within the two districts sampled. These rats were commonly infested with efficient Y. pestis vectors, Xenopsylla cheopis and X. brasiliensis in Arua and Nebbi districts, respectively. In peridomestic and sylvatic areas in both districts, the Nile rat, Arvicanthus niloticus, was the most abundant rodent and hosted the highest diversity of flea species. When significant temporal differences in flea loads were detected, they were typically lower during the dry month of January. We did not detect any significant differences in small mammal abundance or flea loads between villages with our without a history of human plague, indicating that conditions during inter-epizootic periods are similar between these areas. Future studies are needed to determine whether flea abundance or species composition changes during epizootics when humans are most at risk of exposure.

Two new species of fleas of the genus Kohlsia Traub, 1950 (Siphonaptera: Ceratophyllidae) from Mexico

Two new species of the genus Kohlsia Traub, 1950 from Mexico are described and illustrated, K. zyanya and K. ahuacatlan. A key to the species of Kohlsia known to occur in Mexico is provided.

Siphonaptera Associated With Wild Mammals From the Central Atlantic Forest Biodiversity Corridor in Southeastern Brazil

We collected 379 samples of eight flea species from 235 specimens of wild mammals captured in three areas of the Central Atlantic Forest Corridor in the state of Espírito Santo, southeastern Brazil, between August 2006 and February 2008. Among the 22 mammal species, we found eight species of marsupials (order Didelphimorphia), 13 species of rodents (order Rodentia), and one species of wild cat (order Carnivora). The total prevalence of infestation was 28.1%, with similar percentages in rodents (26.4%) and marsupials (29.5%). The infestation in the southern area was 3 times higher than that observed in the northern area. The infestation by single flea species was > 6 times higher than the total number of double and triple infestations. The mean abundance of fleas was 1.61. The flea female/male ratio was 1.38, ranging from 0.95 in Adoratopsylla (Tritopsylla) intermedia intermedia (Wagner) to 1.81 in Hechtiella nitidus (Johnson) in the most flea species infested. We report three new records of flea species in the state of Espírito Santo, and eight new host records.

Ectoparasites of the Occult Bat,Myotis occultus(Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae)

Only a single previous study has examined ectoparasites of the occult bat (Myotis occultus), from which only 2 species of fleas were identified. For our study, we examined 202 individuals, 52 fresh hosts and 150 museum specimens, from New Mexico and southern Colorado for ectoparasites. We recorded 2158 ectoparasites, 634 from fresh hosts and 1524 from museum specimens. Ectoparasites belonged to 10 families and 13 genera of insect or acari and represent new host and locality records. In general, ectoparasites collected from fresh hosts and museum specimens were represented by 4 major species of mite: Macronyssus crosbyi, Alabidocarpus calcaratus, Acanthophthirius lucifugus, and Alabidocarpus nr. eptesicus. From our study, we found fresh hosts to have significantly greater prevalence values for Myodopsylla gentilis (flea), Chiroptonyssus robustipes (mite), and Leptotrombidium myotis (chigger), whereas museum specimens had significantly greater prevalence values for A. calcaratus (mite) and A. nr. eptesicus (mite). There were no significant differences between prevalence values for 4 mites including M. crosbyi, A. lucifugus, Pteracarus nr. minutus, and Cryptonyssus sp. Our study represents the only extensive study of ectoparasites on M. occultus and provides evidence for the importance of examining fresh hosts and museum specimens in future ectoparasite studies.

HOW FLEAS JUMP

![Figure][1] Our encounters with fleas are now thankfully limited to the unwanted infections of our pets, but for most mammals and birds they remain a continual annoyance. There are about 2000 species of fleas that suck the blood of a wide variety of hosts, each adapted to their own

Ectoparasites of dogs and cats in Albania

One hundred eighty-one dogs and 26 short-hair cats from suburban areas around Tirana, Albania were examined for ectoparasite infestation. The dogs were examined on several occasions from 2005 through 2009 representing three seasons: winter (December-February), spring (March-May), and summer (June-August); the cats were examined in late autumn (November). In addition, deep ear swab specimens of 30 dogs were examined for ear mites. The arthropod ectoparasite fauna of the dogs included two tick species (Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Ixodes ricinus), three mite species (Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis, Otodectes cynotis, and Demodex canis), three flea species (Ctenocephalides canis, Ctenocephalides felis, and Pulex irritans), and one louse species (Trichodectes canis). In the dogs, rates of infestation were 23.8% for R. sanguineus, 0.6% for I. ricinus, 4.4% for S. scabiei var. canis, 6.7% for O. cynotis, 0.6% for D. canis, 75.7% for C. canis, 5.0% for C. felis, 8.3% for P. irritans, and 6.6% for T. canis. Mixed infestation with two or three species of ectoparasites was recorded on 38.1% of the dogs. Fleas infested 75.7% dogs (geometric mean, 3.96; range, 1-80) and were observed in winter, spring, and summer with increasing prevalences of 64.3%, 75.9%, and 100%. Ticks parasitized 24.3% of the dogs (geometric mean, 0.41; range, 1-331). R. sanguineus ticks were recorded on 34.2% and 50% of the dogs examined in spring and summer, respectively, but were absent on the dogs during winter except for a single I. ricinus specimen observed. Prevalence of infestation with R. sanguineus, S. scabiei var. canis, C. felis, P. irritans, and T. canis did not differ between dogs < or = 6 months and dogs > 6 months of age; however, prevalence of infestation with C. canis was significantly (p < 0.01) higher in dogs > 6 months old. There was no difference between the sexes for the prevalences of infestation with those parasites. The examination of the cats revealed infestation with only one species of ectoparasite, C. felis (prevalence, 100%; geometric mean, 2.5; range, 1-9).

Prevalence of flea infestation in dogs and cats in Hungary combined with a survey of owner awareness

A survey was conducted in order to gain current information on flea species (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) infesting dogs and cats living in urban and rural areas of Hungary, along with data on the factors that affect the presence, distribution and seasonality of infestation. In addition, owner awareness of flea infestation was evaluated. Practitioners in 13 veterinary clinics were asked to examine all dogs and cats attending the clinic and to collect fleas, when present, on 2 days in each month from December 2005 to November 2006. They also completed a questionnaire for each animal examined. A total of 319 dogs (14.1%) were found to be infested; the highest prevalence (27.1%) of infestation on dogs occurred in August and the lowest (5.4%) in May. Prevalence of fleas on cats was higher (22.9%); the highest (35.0%) and lowest (8.1%) prevalences occurred in July and April, respectively. Fleas were more prevalent in rural (387/1924 animals, 20.2%) than in urban (161/1343 animals, 12.0%) areas. Three species, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché), Ctenocephalides canis (Curtis) and Pulex irritans L., were found. On dogs, the prevalence of C. canis alone was 53.0%, whereas that of C. felis alone was 36.0%. Only 19 specimens of P. irritans were found on 14 dogs from rural habitats only. Prevalence of C. felis only on cats was 94.3%; the remaining cats were infested with either C. canis or with mixed infestations of C. felis and C. canis. More than half (51.4%) of the owners of infested dogs and cats had not used flea control products in the past year or more, and five times as many owners in rural than urban areas had not used flea control products in the same period. Very few owners reported having attempted to kill fleas in their animals' environment; instead, they believed that fleas were acquired from other cats or dogs.

Ectoparasite communities on Tupaia belangeri (Scandentia: Tupaiidae) in surrounding areas of Erhai Lake in Yunnan, China

Objective To investigate the ectoparasite communities on Tupaia belangeri (T. belangeri) in the surrounding areas of Erhai Lake and their potential importance in medical and veterinary science. Methods Different locations in surrounding areas of Erhai Lake in Yunnan were selected as the investigation spots. T. belangeri were randomly captured with baited mouse cages and then brought to the laboratory for identification according to their body shape, size and color, and measurements such as the lengths of their body, ear and hind feet. Ectoparasites on them were collected and identified to determine the species under microscope after specimens were mounted on slides, with the clearing and drying process completed. The constituent ratio (C), prevalence (P) and average ectoparasite abundance (A) were used to test the prevalence and density of ectoparasites; Non-parametric Mann-Whitney {/-tests were used to test the differences in the abundance and richness of ectoparasites between female and male hosts; Spearman correlation analysis was used to analyze the relationship between ectoparasites and the body parameters of hosts. Results There was very high species diversity of ectoparasites found on T. belangeri and some species of ectoparasites were reported associated with human diseases. A high proportion (88%) of 107 T. belangeri was found to be infested with ectoparasites. A total of 75 species of ectoparasites on them were collected, including 58 species of chigger mite, 12 species of gamasid mite, 4 species of flea and 1 species of sucking louse. Within this ectoparasite complex, 13 species were previously reported to be vectors of human disease agents. Non-parametric Mann-Whitney U-tests showed significant differences between male and female T. belangeri in terms of the abundance and richness of total ectoparasites. However, the species richness and abundance of chigger mites, sucking lice, fleas or gamasid mites presented no significant differences between male and female hosts. Spearman correlation analysis showed that none of correlations were observed between host body parameters with abundance and richness of total ectoparasites, chigger mites, sucking lice, fleas or gamatid mites. Conclusion The results suggest that there is very high species diversity of ectoparasites on T. belangeri, consisting mainly of communities of sucking lice, fleas, chiggers and gamasid mites.

The survey of rat density and flea index in households in villages having previous plague experience in Lianghe County, Yunnan Province in 2007

Objective To evaluate the risk of plague occurrence via surveying and analyzing indoor rat density and flea index in natural villages having previous plague experience. Methods During August to September 2007, 30 natural villages experiencing previous plague were selected based on the surveillance data, and then all households were coded with numbers and 20 households in each village were randomly selected via computer. Cages and sticky papers were set in 600 selected households to capture rats and fleas. Rat density, flea prevalence, flea index and median were estimated. Results One hundred thirty-three Rattus flavipectus and 33 Suncus murinus were caught and averaged rat density was 2.8 rats per one hundred cage. nights (166/6000), the median was 5 rats each village. One hundred and one mice infected fleas, flea prevalence on rats was 60.8% (101/166), 296 Xenopsylla cheopis and 48 Leptopsylla segnis were collected. Rat flea index was 2.1 fleas per rat (344/166). A total of 315 dissociated flea was caught, average dissociated flea index was 0.026 fleas per sticky paper (315/11888). The median was 5.5 dissociated fleas per village. Of dissociated fleas, Ctenocephalides felis felis (205) and Xenopsylla cheopis (103) accounted for 97.8% (308/315). The proportion for species of the rat flea and the dissociated flea was different(Fisher test: P < 0.01). The rat flea was significantly associated with the rat density(r = 0.68, P < 0.01), but the dissociated flea was significantly associated with neither the rat density(r = -yield than fried wheat batter(χ2 = 5.59, P < 0.05). Conclusions In these villages having previous plague experience of Lianghe County, Rattusflavipectus was dominant species of indoor rats, Xenopsylla cheopis and Ctenocephalides felis felis were dominant species of rat flea and dissociated flea, respectively. Mengsong, Bangdu, and Tangjiatun village had potential risk of plague emergence. Key words: Plague; Rat density ; Flea index; Dissociated flea; Rat bait

Ecology of &lt;I&gt;Rickettsia felis&lt;/I&gt;: A Review

It has been two decades since the first description of Rickettsia felis, and although a nearly cosmopolitan distribution is now apparent, much of the ecology of this unique microorganism remains unresolved. The cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis, is currently the only known biological vector of R. felis; however, molecular evidence of R. felis in other species of fleas as well as in ticks and mites suggests a variety of arthropod hosts. Studies examining the transmission of R. felis using colonized cat fleas have shown stable vertical transmission but not horizontal transmission. Likewise, serological and molecular tools have been used to detect R. felis in a number of vertebrate hosts, including humans, in the absence of a clear mechanism of horizontal transmission. Considered an emerging flea-borne rickettsiosis, clinical manifestation of R. felis infection in humans, including, fever, rash, and headache is similar to other rickettsial diseases. Recent advances toward further understanding the ecology of R. felis have been facilitated by stable R. felis-infected cat flea colonies, several primary flea isolates and sustained maintenance of R. felis in cell culture systems, and highly sensitive quantitative molecular assays. Here, we provide a synopsis of R. felis including the known distribution and arthropods infected; transmission mechanisms; current understanding of vertebrate infection and human disease; and the tools available to further examine R. felis.

Studies of Vector Competency and Efficiency of North American Fleas for &lt;I&gt;Yersinia pestis&lt;/I&gt;: State of the Field and Future Research Needs

The etiological agent of plague, Yersinia pestis, is most commonly transmitted by the bite of infectious fleas. To date, at least 28 flea species occurring in North America have been experimentally confirmed as vectors of Y. pestis. Transmission efficiency differs among species and also between different studies of a single species. These differences may, however, in large part reflect nonstandardized experimental conditions used during the first half of the 20th century when such studies were conducted in response to the rapid spread of Y. pestis across the western United States after its introduction at the beginning of this century. The majority of these early transmission studies focused on the blocked flea mechanism of transmission, which typically does not occur until > 2-3 wk after the flea becomes infected. Recent studies have challenged the paradigm that Y. pestis is usually spread by blocked fleas by demonstrating that numerous flea species, including the oriental rat flea Xenopsylla cheopis, which was the focus of the early classical studies on blocked flea transmission, are capable of"early-phase" transmission during the first few days after becoming infected and before a complete blockage can form. The aims of this review are to 1) summarize Y. pestis vector competency and efficiency studies for fleas occurring in North America, 2) discuss the implications of the results of these studies for our understanding of the dynamics of plague epizootics, 3) demonstrate why older transmission studies need to be repeated using a standardized experimental system, and 4) outline future directions for studies of fleas as vectors of Y. pestis.

A Description of Two New Species of Ectinorus (Siphonaptera: Rhopalopsyllidae) from Laguna Blanca National Park, Neuquén Province, Argentina

Two new species of rhopalopsyllid fleas: Ectinorus lareschiae, n. sp. and Ectinorus morenoi, n. sp. are described from Laguna Blanca National Park, Neuquén Province, Argentina. Ectinorus lareschiae was collected from the sigmodontid rodents Phyllotis xanthopygus (Waterhouse) and Reithrodon auritus (Fischer), while E. morenoi was also collected from P. xanthopygus in addition to the sigmodontid rodent Abrothrix longipilis (Waterhouse) and the didelphid marsupial Thylamys pallidior (Thomas). The female sex of E. lareschiae is unknown. During these studies, it was noted that Beaucournu and Gonzalez (2005) did not include Ectinorus alejoi Hastriter, 2002 (in Hastriter et al. 2002) in their diagnosis of Ectinorus lagidium. A diagnostic character is therefore provided to distinguish males of E. alejoi from males of E. lagidium. A listing of all known species of Ectinorus is included to facilitate future work.

Are local plague endemicity and ecological characteristics of vectors and reservoirs related? A case study in north-east Tanzania

Abstract The pattern of plague endemicity in Tanzania is characterized by continuous re-appearance of the disease in some locations, while in other neighbouring villages the disease has never or seldom been observed. To understand the reasons for this pattern, we studied small mammal and flea species composition, diversity and relative abundances in two plague-endemic and two plague-free locations. We asked (a) whether fleas more abundant in plague-endemic locations differ in their characteristic abundance and the degree of their host specificity from fleas more abundant in plague-free locations and (b) whether hosts most abundant in plague- endemic locations differ in the diversity of their flea assemblages from hosts most abundant in plague-free locations. We characterized (a) each host species by species richness and degree of taxonomic relatedness of its flea assemblages and (b) each flea species by its mean abundance and size, and degree of taxonomic relatedness of its host spectrum and compared their relative abundances between locations. No significant difference between plague- endemic and plague-free locations in either host density or any variable related to flea abundance or diversity was found. However, there was marginally significant effect of taxonomic distinctness of a flea assemblage harboured by a host on its probability to be more abundant in either plague-endemic or plague-free locations. Furthermore, hosts more abundant in plague-endemic locations tended to harbour closely-related fleas. Finally. while opportunistic and specialist fleas were equally distributed in both sets of locations, fleas exploiting distantly-related hosts were found mainly in plague-free locations during the rainy season. We suggest that the observed patterns might arise due to seasonal and spatial differences in local microclimatic conditions and landscape connectivity.

Study on the natural foci of Marmota himalayana plague in Sichuan province

To explore the existence of natural foci on Marmota himalayana plague in Sichuan province and to provide basis for prevention and control of the disease. Both epidemiological investigation and laboratory tests were used to provide the host animal and fleas of the vectors with Yersinia pestis carriers. 30 species of animals were found to belong to 10 orders. Ochotona curzoniae and M. himalayana were the most common ones while 7 species of the fleas belonged to 7 genera and 3 families. M. himalayana was the main reservoirs while Callopsylla dolabris and Oropsylla silantiewi served as vectors. The 13 Y. pestis were identified from 43 Marmota samples. 8 samples were identified under IHA, with the highest titer of herding-dogs serum as 1:10,240. 19 samples were F1 antigen positive using RIHA and the highest titer of M. himalayana serum was 1:409,600. The major foci was 4545 km2, distributed at Dege county in Sichuan province. We have confirmed the existence of natural foci on M. himalayana plague in Sichuan province.

Flea Abundance on Black-Tailed Prairie Dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) Increases During Plague Epizootics

Black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) on the Great Plains of the United States are highly susceptible to plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, with mortality on towns during plague epizootics often approaching 100%. The ability of flea-borne transmission to sustain disease spread has been questioned because of inefficiency of flea vectors. However, even with low individual efficiency, overall transmission can be increased if flea abundance (the number of fleas on hosts) increases. Changes in flea abundance on hosts during plague outbreaks were recorded during a large-scale study of plague outbreaks in prairie dogs in north central Colorado during 3 years (2004-2007). Fleas were collected from live-trapped black-tailed prairie dogs before and during plague epizootics and tested by PCR for the presence of Y. pestis. The predominant fleas were two prairie dog specialists (Oropsylla hirsuta and Oropsylla tuberculata cynomuris), and a generalist flea species (Pulex simulans) was also recorded from numerous mammals in the area. The three species differ in seasonal abundance, with greatest abundance in spring (February and March) and fall (September and October). Flea abundance and infestation intensity increased during epizootics and were highest on prairie dogs with Y. pestis-infected fleas. Seasonal occurrence of epizootics among black-tailed prairie dogs was found to coincide with seasonal peaks in flea abundance. Concentration of infected fleas on surviving animals may account for rapid spread of plague during epizootics. In particular, the role of the generalist flea P. simulans was previously underappreciated.

A New Species of Anomiopsyllus Baker, 1904 (Insecta: Siphonaptera), and Noteworthy Records of Fleas from Nelson's Woodrat, Neotoma nelsoni (Rodentia: Cricetidae), in the Oriental Basin, Mexico

We report the first record of ectoparasites from Nelson's woodrat, Neotoma nelsoni, a rare, endemic mammal of east-central Mexico. We also describe a new flea species of Anomiopsyllus (A. perontesis n. sp.), which presents a complete row of bristles on sternum IX and 3 blunt spines on movable process; provide a new country record for the flea Stenistomera alpina (Baker, 1985); and report a new host record for the flea Echidnophaga gallinacea (Westwood, 1875). A taxonomic key for the new species is included.

Seasonal and habitat dependence of fleas parasitic on small mammals in Tanzania

We investigated host and flea species composition across different habitats during dry and rainy seasons in the Western Usambara Mountains in Tanzania. During both seasons, similarity in flea species composition increased with an increase in the similarity in host species composition. Nevertheless, between-season within-habitat as well as within-season between-habitat similarity in host species composition was higher than similarity in flea species composition. Ordination of habitats according to their host and flea species composition demonstrated that the pattern of between-habitat similarity in both host and flea species composition varied seasonally. Despite the relatively rich mammal and flea fauna of the study region, the major contribution to variation in species composition between seasons and among habitats was due to a few species only. Flea assemblages on Lophuromys kilonzoi Verheyen et al., 2007 and Praomys delectorum Thomas, 1910 in different habitats were equally similar in either season. In contrast, flea assemblages on Mastomys natalensis (Smith, 1834) occurring in different habitats were more similar in the dry than in the rainy season, whereas the opposite was the case for fleas on Grammomys sp. In different hosts, the main differences in species composition of flea assemblages between seasons as well as among habitats were due to different flea species. Although our results support the earlier idea that parasite species composition is determined by both host species composition and habitat properties, the former appears to explain variance in flea species composition between localities in the tropics better than between localities in temperate and arid zones.

Polymerase Chain Reaction Detection ofRickettsia felis-Like Organism inArchaeopsylla erinacei(Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) From Bavaria, Germany

Fleas occur as ectoparasites of vertebrates around the world. The obligate intracellular bacterium Rickettsia felis has been detected globally in several flea species, causing a murine-typhus like disease in humans. In this study, a total of 150 hedgehog fleas (Archaeopsylla erinacei Bouché) were collected from 18 hedgehogs coming from four locations in southern Germany for the detection of R. felis. Individual DNA extracts were tested with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the amplification of the rickettsial ompB, gltA, ompA, and 16S rRNA genes. A total of 144 samples (96%) were positive using ompB PCR. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis showed an organism very closely related to R. felis with 96% similarity. These results provided evidence that hedgehog fleas in Germany may be nearly 100% infected with a rickettsial species closely related to R. felis. Further studies are needed for its molecular and pathogenetic characterization. The hedgehog as a potential reservoir for the emergent pathogen R. felis or closely related strains also needs further study.

A description of four new species of fleas (Insecta, Siphonaptera) from Angola, Ethiopia, Papua New Guinea, and Peru

Four new species of fleas are described: Aphropsylla truncata sp. n. (Ethiopia), Ectinorus hirsutus sp. n. (Peru), Rhinolophopsylla traubi sp. n. (Angola), and Thaumapsylla wilsoni sp. n. (Papua New Guinea). Our understanding of the genus Aphropsylla is deficient, therefore a discussion of host/parasite relationships and new records from Uganda are provided. A key is provided for the genus Aphropsylla, while representatives of the other three genera are associated with existing keys to facilitate their identification. The presence of lucodiscs on Apropsylla and other genera is briefly discussed. The occurrence of lucodiscs among representatives of the order Siphonaptera deserves further investigation.