Carnivore Species Research Articles

Mapping human‐carnivore coexistence: approaches to integrating anthropogenic influences on carnivore distribution and connectivity modelling

AbstractInterdisciplinary approaches to modelling human‐wildlife coexistence have gained much attention in recent years, especially regarding carnivores which are subject to historical human persecution and dynamic attitudes and cultural values. Accordingly, there have been many attempts to gain insights into anthropogenic influences on carnivores through the use of species distribution models and connectivity analyses. However, there have been no global reviews on how anthropogenic influences are incorporated into such models. We conducted a literature review of global terrestrial carnivore species distribution and connectivity studies from 1995 to 2021 to evaluate the type of measure, frequency of use and spatial scale of the predictor variables used to describe environmental conditions and assess anthropogenic influences in such predictive models. We evaluated 2495 variables from 263 carnivore distribution and connectivity studies and found that variables used to describe environmental conditions are four times more commonly used than those used to assess anthropogenic influences on carnivores. However, the number of anthropogenic covariates used in carnivore distribution and connectivity studies has increased by 4.7% per year, and the spatial resolution of those covariates has simultaneously decreased by 7.6% per year. We observed that anthropogenic covariates were used more in studies occurring in the global north and for larger‐bodied carnivores (>15 kg), suggesting the need for better integration of anthropogenic metrics into predictive models more widely and for smaller‐bodied carnivores. To help guide and advance the further use of sociological data into predictive spatial models for carnivores, we propose a framework that emphasizes integration of sociological methodologies and data sources ranging from exploratory expert elicitation to targeted focus group interviews at multiple phases in the conservation planning process.

The importance of rodents to a specialist carnivore in an industrialized site

Abstract Specialist carnivores are often among the first species disappearing from transformed, human-dominated landscapes. However, some carnivore species can exploit abundant food sources in human-dominated landscapes. In this study, we investigated the diet of a specialist carnivore, the serval (Leptailurus serval), inhabiting artificial and natural landscapes surrounding a petrochemical plant in the Highveld of Mpumalanga, South Africa. From 2013 to 2018, for each year, we collected and analysed a total of 264 scat samples. We found that rodent species dominated the serval diet, while other prey items like birds, insects, and unidentified prey contributed little to the diet. In terms of biomass consumed, Otomys sp (56.94 %), Mastomys sp (19.12 %), and Rhabdomys sp (8.68 %) were the most important rodent prey. We further found that biomass consumed is only affected by species, not season or species–season interactions. Our results concur with previous studies that serval is primarily a rodent specialist and that specialisation holds even in human-altered landscapes.

A prominent vertical occipital white matter fasciculus unique to primate brains

Vision in humans and other primates enlists parallel processing streams in the dorsal and ventral visual cortex, known to support spatial and object processing, respectively. These streams are bridged, however, by a prominent white matter tract, the vertical occipital fasciculus (VOF), identified in both classical neuroanatomy and recent diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) studies. Understanding the evolution of the VOF may shed light on its origin, function, and role in visually guided behaviors. To this end, we acquired high-resolution dMRI data from the brains of select mammalian species, including anthropoid and strepsirrhine primates, a tree shrew, rodents, and carnivores. In each species, we attempted to delineate the VOF after first locating the optic radiations in the occipital white matter. In all primate species examined, the optic radiation was flanked laterally by a prominent and coherent white matter fasciculus recognizable as the VOF. By contrast, the equivalent analysis applied to four non-primate species from the same superorder as primates (tree shrew, ground squirrel, paca, and rat) failed to reveal white matter tracts in the equivalent location. Clear evidence for a VOF was also absent in two larger carnivore species (ferret and fox). Although we cannot rule out the existence of minor or differently organized homologous fiber pathways in the non-primate species, the results suggest that the VOF has greatly expanded, or possibly emerged, in the primate lineage. This adaptation likely facilitated the evolution of unique visually guided behaviors in primates, with direct impacts on manual object manipulation, social interactions, and arboreal locomotion.

Generalized nonlinearity in animal ecology: Research, review, and recommendations.

Generalized linear models (GLMs) are an integral tool in ecology. Like general linear models, GLMs assume linearity, which entails a linear relationship between independent and dependent variables. However, because this assumption acts on the link rather than the natural scale in GLMs, it is more easily overlooked. We reviewed recent ecological literature to quantify the use of linearity. We then used two case studies to confront the linearity assumption via two GLMs fit to empirical data. In the first case study we compared GLMs to generalized additive models (GAMs) fit to mammal relative abundance data. In the second case study we tested for linearity in occupancy models using passerine point-count data. We reviewed 162 studies published in the last 5 years in five leading ecology journals and found less than 15% reported testing for linearity. These studies used transformations and GAMs more often than they reported a linearity test. In the first case study, GAMs strongly out-performed GLMs as measured by AIC in modeling relative abundance, and GAMs helped uncover nonlinear responses of carnivore species to landscape development. In the second case study, 14% of species-specific models failed a formal statistical test for linearity. We also found that differences between linear and nonlinear (i.e., those with a transformed independent variable) model predictions were similar for some species but not for others, with implications for inference and conservation decision-making. Our review suggests that reporting tests for linearity are rare in recent studies employing GLMs. Our case studies show how formally comparing models that allow for nonlinear relationships between the dependent and independent variables has the potential to impact inference, generate new hypotheses, and alter conservation implications. We conclude by suggesting that ecological studies report tests for linearity and use formal methods to address linearity assumption violations in GLMs.

Seasonal activity patterns and home range sizes of wolves in the human‐dominated landscape of northeast Türkiye

Gray wolves Canis lupus comprise one of the most widely distributed carnivore species on the planet, but they face myriad environmental and anthropogenic pressures. Previous research suggests that wolves adjust their time‐ and space‐use seasonally to mitigate risks from humans, conspecifics, and other predators while maximizing their hunting and reproductive success. With many populations of wolves resettling in areas with dense human populations, understanding how wolves may adjust their temporal and spatial patterns in these more human‐dominated landscapes is of high conservation importance. Typically, human presence causes wolves to increase their nocturnality and home range size. Here, we look at how seasonal home range size and diel activity patterns among resident and non‐resident wolves differ in an ecosystem that experiences significant differences in human activity between seasons. While non‐resident wolves had larger home ranges than resident wolves, there were no differences in home range sizes within residents and non‐residents between seasons, suggesting that seasonal changes in human presence had no effect on home range size. The activity patterns of wolves were similar between seasons, but resident wolves had greater overlap with humans and were more active than non‐resident wolves when humans were less present in the landscape. Both resident and non‐resident wolves showed increased nocturnality, with both groups selecting for nocturnality more strongly in the nomadic season. This is the first study of tracking Türkiye's wolves and offers the first descriptions of the temporal and spatial trends of GPS‐collared wolves in this highly human‐dominated environment.

Mapping habitat suitability and connectivity for the Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi) in Batutegi Protected Forest, Lampung, Indonesia

Abstract. Malik HN, Rahman DA, Setiawan Y, Huda R. 2024. Mapping habitat suitability and connectivity for the Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi) in Batutegi Protected Forest, Lampung, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 25: 2249-2256. One of the rarest and least understood species of carnivore, the Sunda clouded leopard (Neofelis diardi Cuvier, 1823), is facing considerable threats from continued habitat loss and fragmentation. The Batutegi Protected Forest, Lampung, Indonesia, which was recently identified as an existing but isolated habitat of this vulnerable felid, is also experiencing fragmentation and encroachment. These combined threats have led to a reduction in the availability of suitable habitats for this isolated population and created barriers restricting its movement between forested areas. Understanding the factors that influence habitat selection and developing ecological corridors to improve its connectivity is critical to the conservation of the Sunda clouded leopard in Batutegi Protected Forest. We examined camera trap data and used maximum entropy modeling to construct a habitat suitability map, which was used to develop the resistance surface. We then performed habitat connectivity analysis using least-cost modeling. Our results indicated that there was a moderate potential in some areas of the study region to support the occurrence of Sunda clouded leopard, whose presence was mainly driven by the presence of forested landscapes and higher elevations. The predicted connectivity network revealed that the most suitable corridor could facilitate the movement of Sunda clouded leopards between forested areas by avoiding the monoculture plantations and mainly crossing through a matrix of forested patches and mixed plantation areas. This study contributes important insights to assisting in the prioritization of habitat conservation for the protection of Sunda clouded leopard and overall forest biodiversity due to its capacity as an umbrella species.

Sex and size matter: Intricate dominance relationships in an East African large carnivore guild

AbstractHuman disturbance has the potential to alter competitive interactions, favoring species better able to adapt to areas used by humans. One such species is the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), which has been successful in human‐dominated areas throughout Africa. In addition, hyenas are frequently successful in kleptoparasiting prey brought down by other carnivore species (e.g., leopards [Panthera pardus]). In the Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania, leopard density declines sharply close to human settlements, and hyenas are their only competitors. Using camera trap data and a spatio‐temporal occupancy model, we assessed the relative dominance of each species through spatial co‐occurrence, altered activity patterns and temporary site avoidance. We tested the hypothesis that hyenas gain a competitive advantage over leopards in human‐dominated areas due to their relatively higher tolerance for anthropogenic activities. We found that while hyena occupancy was best predicted by prey occupancy and not strongly affected by landscape factors associated with humans, leopards, especially male leopards, were less likely to be detected close to human settlements. Female leopards, which are smaller than males, exhibited activity shifts and temporary site avoidance in response to hyenas. In response to male leopards, hyenas shifted their activity patterns to become more active around dusk and dawn. These results suggest that while hyenas may be behaviorally dominant over female leopards, they are subordinate to male leopards. We found that male leopards and hyenas were less likely to co‐occur closer to people, especially where prey was scarce, suggesting subordinance of hyenas to male leopards may be mitigated by human disturbance. Furthermore, young male leopards shifted their activity patterns to be more diurnal in response to hyena presence, suggesting that dominance relationship between hyenas and leopards develops with age and is probably related to body size. These results indicate that human disturbance has the potential to affect the competitive relationship between leopards and hyenas in the Udzungwa Mountains, but that relationships will vary with sex and body size.

Mustelid mugshots: photographing facial masks of European polecats (Mustela putorius) for individual recognition and density estimation using camera traps

Small carnivores play an important role in ecosystems, but their often hidden lifestyle makes them generally hard to observe. Camera-trapping methodology shows great promise as a standardized monitoring tool for small carnivores. The European polecat (Mustela putorius) is a species of conservation concern, listed on the Annex V of the EU Council’s Directive on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. Because of this, EU member states have to report the status of their polecat populations regularly. However, standardized methods to estimate the population size of polecat populations are currently lacking. We present a tube-based camera-trapping system, the Polecam, designed to obtain photographs of the facial masks of individual polecats. We tested the system in four study areas in southern Sweden during Spring and Autumn 2021. We obtained 52 observations of polecats, out of which we were able to identify 38 (73%) to individual. From these observations, we estimated area and season specific estimates of density for five season-area combinations using a multi-session spatial capture-recapture model. Density estimates ranged from 0.84 to 2.7 individuals/1000 ha, similar to the estimates from similar landscapes in other countries in Europe. We also obtained observations of six other species of small carnivores, suggesting that the Polecam could be used for multi-species monitoring, as well as density estimation of European polecats.

Farmers’ perceptions of coexisting with a predator assemblage: Quantification, characterization, and recommendations for human-carnivore conflict mitigation

Human-Carnivore Conflicts (HCC) are a critical concern for the conservation of both species and habitats, as well as the livelihoods of farmers. This underscores the need for comprehensive research that examines how farmers perceive their interactions with wildlife. Our study aims to present three strategies for dealing with HCC to policymakers, state or regional authorities, and farmers. These strategies are based on a thorough examination and categorization of how farmers view their interactions with a diverse group of predators. Due to an ongoing HCC between farmers at northern Israel and local carnivore species we conducted an online survey with 46 farmers from this region and utilized an in-depth Exploratory Factorial Analysis to identify potential solutions to mitigate conflicts between humans and carnivores. Our findings unveiled the complex nature of these interactions from the farmers’ perspective. They stressed the importance of achieving a delicate equilibrium between wildlife conservation and farmers’ requirements. Through our analysis, we identified three key strategies that farmers perceive as effective in reducing Human-Carnivore conflicts: 1. The implementation of compensation schemes and improved collaboration between farmers and authorities; 2. Advancements in Research and Development (R&D) and the utilization of technological solutions; 3. A preference for simple, low-tech solutions. These strategies offer a valuable framework for authorities and policymakers to assess conflict mitigation options. Furthermore, our study shed light on the relatively low level of trust that farmers have in major wildlife management authorities and governmental offices. This highlights the significance of incorporating farmers’ perspectives and strategies into human-wildlife interaction management plans, while also building trust, to foster stronger relationships that benefit both wildlife conservation and farmers’ livelihoods.

Lion lords and sharing hyaenas: Carnivore guild dynamics around elephant carcasses.

Megaherbivore carcasses represent sporadic but energetically rewarding resources for carnivores, offering a unique opportunity to study coexistence dynamics between facultative scavengers. South African fenced protected areas, such as Madikwe Game Reserve (Madikwe hereafter), host viable populations of large carnivores and high densities of elephants, Loxodonta africana. However, high carnivore densities can lead to potentially fatal interspecific encounters and increased competition, particularly around high-quality trophic resources. This study explores the temporal partitioning and co-detection strategies of carnivores at six elephant carcasses in Madikwe, aiming to understand how the increased carrion biomass available at elephant carcasses influences coexistence dynamics. Camera traps were deployed to monitor carcasses during two periods (2019 and 2020), revealing occurrences of six carnivore species. Carnivores, particularly black-backed jackals, Lupulella mesomelas, (hereafter jackal), lions, Panthera leo, and spotted hyaenas, Crocuta crocuta, comprised 56.7% of carcass observations, highlighting their pivotal roles in scavenging dynamics. Pairwise co-detection analysis demonstrated consistent association and shared peak activity periods between jackals and spotted hyaenas, indicating potential resource sharing. However, the minimal co-detection rates between lions and other carnivores highlight their resource domination. There was some evidence of temporal partitioning between carnivores, with most species exhibiting earlier peaks in nocturnal activity to avoid temporal overlap with lions. This study emphasises the importance of elephant carcasses in the diet of multiple species and coexistence techniques utilised to exploit this ephemeral resource. As fenced protected areas become crucial for conserving intact carnivore guilds globally, further research into carnivore behavioural adaptations at carcasses is recommended to shed light on their coexistence strategies.

Beware of the stripes: Encounter between Lycalopex griseus and Conepatus chinga in their natural environment in central Chile

We document an occasional encounter between carnivore species Lycalopex griseus and Conepatus chinga, using camera traps in native Mediterranean forest of the Coast Range in central Chile. Photographic evidence is provided as to the agonistic behavior exhibited by C. chinga and the reaction of L. griseus to this interaction. In view of incomplete niche segregation and the spatiotemporal overlap in the habitat use for both species, our observations contribute to a better understanding of the interactions and ecological dynamics of the carnivore community of this ecosystem.

Big cats persisting in human-dominated landscape: Habitat suitability and connectivity of leopards in central North China

ContextThe leopard (Panthera pardus), the only large carnivore species occurring in central North China, has undergone substantial range contraction and population decline due to anthropogenic pressure across the region.ObjectivesIn this study, we aimed to map its current suitable habitats and assess the degree of connectivity between core habitats to inform future conservation planning of this big cat at the landscape scale.MethodsWe conducted this study in central North China (34°11´ ~ 43°49´N, 103°11´ ~ 123°54´E, about 936,000 km2). We collected occurrence locations (N = 196) of leopards from 2014–2020, and modeled its habitat suitability using an “ensemble” species distribution model by incorporating environmental and anthropogenic variables. We then identified the potential dispersal corridors between core habitat patches (≥ 100 km2) through connectivity analysis.ResultsThe leopards preferred humid forests at higher elevations with less human disturbance. Their suitable habitats were highly fragmented, with main core habitats located in Shanxi, Shaanxi, and the border between Gansu and Ningxia provinces. Among all the 8,679 km2 suitable habitats, we identified 14 core habitats (139–1,084 km2, mean = 495.21 km2) with a total area of 6,933 km2, among which only 25.26% (1,751 km2) are covered by nature reserves and only 11 core habitats were confirmed with leopard occurrence. We also identified 8 least-cost pathways among these core habitats with an average length of 57.22 km.ConclusionsOur results revealed that, leopards are persisting in highly fragmented habitats with fragile connectivity among core habitats. The leopards remaining in North China should be considered and managed as a regional meta-population for their long-term persistence in the human-dominated landscape.

Implications of tactile enrichment on the behaviour and whisker movements of four species of carnivorans

Caniformia include a range of aquatic, semi-aquatic and terrestrial species, which reveal diversity in their whisker arrangements and shape. Whisker movements play a crucial role in the perception of tactile information, allowing whiskered mammals to distinguish between shapes, sizes, and textures. Despite the significance of whisker movements in sensory perception, few studies have focussed on measuring whisker movements during tactile sensing. Whisker enrichment tasks have the potential to expand behavioural repertoires of animals in captivity and reduce stereotypical behaviours. However, despite whiskers being essential in guiding foraging and exploration in many mammalian species, tactile whisker enrichment tasks are rare. Here, we utilised a novel tactile enrichment device to investigate the whisker movements in four Caniform species in captivity, including two pinnipeds- South African fur seals (Arctocephalus pussilus) and harbour seals (Phoca vitulina), a mustelid – Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), and a canid – red fox (Vulpes vulpes) during a texture discrimination task. This study is the first to explore the impact of tactile enrichment on the behavioural repertoire of caniforms in captivity and provides the first insight of whisker movements in South African fur seals. The introduction of the tactile enrichment device did not increase the behavioural repertoire, nor did it lead to an increase in stereotypical behaviours or aggression in any of the species. However, it did successfully encourage natural whisker movements in the pinnipeds and otter. The whisker amplitude measure was especially high in the South African fur seals. We suggest that such a complex, discrimination-based enrichment task might only be feasible for more trainable caniforms, such as pinnipeds, rather than more neophobic species, such as the red fox, which did not interact with the enrichment device throughout the study. Therefore, while our enrichment device increased natural whisker movements, an even simpler foraging task might encourage tactile sensing without the requirement for training, making tactile whisker enrichment available to a wider group of species.

Unexpectedly uneven distribution of functional trade-offs explains cranial morphological diversity in carnivores.

Functional trade-offs can affect patterns of morphological and ecological evolution as well as the magnitude of morphological changes through evolutionary time. Using morpho-functional landscape modelling on the cranium of 132 carnivore species, we focused on the macroevolutionary effects of the trade-off between bite force and bite velocity. Here, we show that rates of evolution in form (morphology) are decoupled from rates of evolution in function. Further, we found theoretical morphologies optimising for velocity to be more diverse, while a much smaller phenotypic space was occupied by shapes optimising force. This pattern of differential representation of different functions in theoretical morphological space was highly correlated with patterns of actual morphological disparity. We hypothesise that many-to-one mapping of cranium shape on function may prevent the detection of direct relationships between form and function. As comparatively only few morphologies optimise bite force, species optimising this function may be less abundant because they are less likely to evolve. This, in turn, may explain why certain clades are less variable than others. Given the ubiquity of functional trade-offs in biological systems, these patterns may be general and may help to explain the unevenness of morphological and functional diversity across the tree of life.

Human habitat modification, not apex scavenger decline, drives isotopic niche variation in a carnivore community.

Top carnivores can influence the structure of ecological communities, primarily through competition and predation; however, communities are also influenced by bottom-up forces such as anthropogenic habitat disturbance. Top carnivore declines will likely alter competitive dynamics within and amongst sympatric carnivore species. Increasing intraspecific competition is generally predicted to drive niche expansion and/or individual specialisation, while interspecific competition tends to constrain niches. Using stable isotope analysis of whiskers, we studied the effects of Tasmanian devil Sarcophilus harrisii declines upon the population- and individual-level isotopic niches of Tasmanian devils and sympatric spotted-tailed quolls Dasyurus maculatus subsp. maculatus. We investigated whether time since the onset of devil decline (a proxy for severity of decline) and landscape characteristics affected the isotopic niche breadth and overlap of devil and quoll populations. We quantified individual isotopic niche breadth for a subset of Tasmanian devils and spotted-tailed quolls and assessed whether between-site population niche variation was driven by individual-level specialisation. Tasmanian devils and spotted-tailed quolls demonstrated smaller population-level isotopic niche breadths with increasing human-modified habitat, while time since the onset of devil decline had no effect on population-level niche breadth or interspecific niche overlap. Individual isotopic niche breadths of Tasmanian devils and spotted-tailed quolls were narrower in human-modified landscapes, likely driving population isotopic niche contraction, however, the degree of individuals' specialisation relative to one another remained constant. Our results suggest that across varied landscapes, mammalian carnivore niches can be more sensitive to the bottom-up forces of anthropogenic habitat disturbance than to the top-down effects of top carnivore decline.

Is dirofilariosis an emerging conservation threat in wild carnivores across the Palearctic?

AbstractDirofilaria species are mosquito‐borne filarial nematodes, with a high veterinary and public health importance, but growing evidence also indicates their frequent occurrence in wildlife. Wild animals may play an important role in the maintenance, transmission and spread of dirofilariosis, but we have little understanding of the ecological and environmental processes that drive infection dynamics in these hosts. Here, we summarise the current knowledge about the distribution of Dirofilaria spp. across carnivore host species and geographic localities in the Palearctic region. This summary highlights that some of these sylvatic species may be important reservoirs of the pathogen, and identifies research trends and biases in the surveillance and monitoring of this host–parasite system in the wild. Furthermore, we provide directions for future research for a better understanding of the threat these parasites may pose to wild mammals.

Carnivore guild utilization of hunter‐provided food sources in boreal forest

Scavenging is an alternative foraging strategy to predation for many carnivore species, as they shift between predation and scavenging in response to changes in resource availability. The use of carrion may lead to interspecific competition and is thus influenced by a risk–reward trade‐off to balance coexistence with guild‐members, where smaller species are expected to be more vigilant due to their vulnerability to larger competitors. We used cameras to investigate the utilization of viscera from the annual moose Alces alces hunt by four sympatric carnivore species: wolf Canis lupus, wolverine Gulo gulo, red fox Vulpes vulpes and pine marten Martes martes in south–central Scandinavia, in relation to body size and habitat. Red foxes had highest probability of visiting viscera sites in both open and forested habitats. Visits by both red foxes and pine martens were longer in open habitats, while number of visits or activity did not differ between habitats. For pine martens, the probability of visiting viscera sites was twice as high in forest compared to open habitat; consequently, red foxes showed the highest overall use of viscera. Red foxes were most vigilant, especially in open habitat, whereas wolverines and pine martens spent a higher proportion of time feeding. Increased vigilance of red foxes facilitates extended resources use in open habitat, while for pine martens, the risk–reward decision occurs before leaving forest cover and entering open habitats. Viscera were not used to a large extent by wolves or wolverines. Wolves are generally less prone to scavenging and wolverines probably use other food resources, more suitable for caching. Overall, competition did not prevent use of viscera, probably due to small‐scale temporal segregation and limited use by the larger carnivores. Consequently, this pulse of human‐subsidized food resources before winter may have important implications for the smaller facultative scavengers.Keywords: carrion use, interspecific competition, pine marten, red fox, wolf, wolverine

Livestock Depredation by Large Carnivores and Human-Wildlife Conflict in Two Districts of Balochistan Province, Pakistan.

Livestock herding is a vital practice in Balochistan, contributing to the economy and culture. The livestock sector is significant in Balochistan, providing 20% of the national stock. Large predators and their prey species, including livestock, have coexisted in these mountainous landscapes for centuries. The aim of the present research is to investigate the impacts of livestock depredation by large predators on livelihoods and predator conservation in two districts of Balochistan, Pakistan. A human-carnivore conflict survey was conducted from July to September 2019, collecting data from 311 residents in a selected study area. Large predators in the study area preyed on a total of 876 livestock during a one-year period, including 560 goats, 292 sheep, 19 cows, and 5 donkeys. The gray wolf is the leading predator, responsible for 66.3% of livestock depredation, followed by the caracal (24.3%), Asiatic jackal (8.9%), and striped hyena (0.6%). The total economic loss was USD 78,694. Overall, 80% of respondents had a negative perception of wolves compared to 24.4% for caracals. Only 20.6% of respondents knew about the importance of conserving carnivores. Livestock depredation by carnivores in the study area created a negative perception of these animals among people. There is a lack of awareness about the importance of conserving carnivore species and their role in the ecosystem. This lack of understanding has ultimately led to detrimental effects on predator populations. It is imperative to raise awareness among people about the ecological significance of carnivores through community meetings, seminars in educational institutions, and providing basic education to herders about effective livestock guarding practices.

Mesocarnivores vary in their spatiotemporal avoidance strategies at communications hubs of an apex carnivore.

Mesocarnivores face interspecific competition and risk intraguild predation when sharing resources with apex carnivores. Within a landscape, carnivores across trophic levels may use the same communication hubs, which provide a mix of risks (injury/death) and rewards (gaining information) for subordinate species. We predicted that mesocarnivores would employ different strategies to avoid apex carnivores at shared communication hubs, depending on their trophic position. To test our prediction, we examined how different subordinate carnivore species in the Santa Cruz Mountains of California, USA, manage spatial overlap with pumas (Puma concolor), both at communication hubs and across a landscape-level camera trap array. We estimated species-specific occurrence, visitation rates, temporal overlap, and Avoidance-Attraction Ratios from camera traps and tested for differences between the two types of sites. We found that mesocarnivores generally avoided pumas at communication hubs, and this became more pronounced when pumas scent-marked during their most recent visit. Coyotes (Canis latrans), the pumas' closest subordinate competitor in our system, exhibited the strongest avoidance at communication hubs. Gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) avoided pumas the least, which may suggest possible benefits from pumas suppressing coyotes. Overall, mesocarnivores exhibited various spatiotemporal avoidance strategies at communication hubs rather than outright avoidance, likely because they benefit from information gained while 'eavesdropping' on puma activity. Variability in avoidance strategies may be due to differential predation risks, as apex carnivores often interact more aggressively with their closest competitors. Combined, our results show how apex carnivores trigger complex species interactions across the entire carnivore guild and how trophic position determines behavioral responses and subsequent space use of subordinate mesocarnivores across the landscape.

Shifting mammal communities and declining species richness along an elevational gradient on Mount Kenya.

Conservation areas encompassing elevation gradients are biodiversity hotspots because they contain a wide range of habitat types in a relatively small space. Studies of biodiversity patterns along elevation gradients, mostly on small mammal or bird species, have documented a peak in diversity at mid elevations. Here, we report on a field study of medium and large mammals to examine the impact of elevation, habitat type, and gross primary productivity on community structure. Species richness was observed using a camera trap transect with 219 sites situated across different habitat types from 2329 to 4657 m above the sea level on the western slope of Mt Kenya, the second highest mountain in Africa. We found that the lowest elevation natural habitats had the highest species richness and relative abundance and that both metrics decreased steadily as elevation increased, paralleling changes in gross primary productivity, and supporting the energy richness hypothesis. We found no evidence for the mid-domain effect on species diversity. The lowest elevation degraded Agro-Forestry lands adjacent to the National Park had high activity of domestic animals and reduced diversity and abundance of native species. The biggest difference in community structure was between protected and unprotected areas, followed by more subtle stepwise differences between habitats at different elevations. Large carnivore species remained relatively consistent but dominant herbivore species shifted along the elevation gradient. There was some habitat specialization and turnover in species, such that the elevation gradient predicts a high diversity of species, demonstrating the high conservation return for protecting mountain ecosystems for biodiversity conservation.