Cactus Species Research Articles

Contrasting Pollination Strategies and Breeding Systems in Two Native Useful Cacti from Southern Brazil

Brazil is one of the centers of diversity of Cactaceae, yet studies addressing both pollination biology and the breeding system in Brazilian cacti are scarce. We herein present a detailed analysis of two native species with economic relevance: Cereus hildmannianus and Pereskia aculeata. The first species produce edible, sweet, spineless fruits and the second species produces leaves with high protein content. Pollination studies were undertaken through fieldwork observations in three localities of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, over two flowering seasons, totaling over 130 observation hours. Breeding systems were elucidated utilizing controlled pollinations. Cereus hildmannianus is solely pollinated by nectar-gathering species of Sphingidae hawk moths. In contrast, the flowers of P. aculeata are pollinated by predominantly native Hymenoptera but also by Coleoptera and Diptera, which gather pollen and/or nectar. Both cacti species are pollinator-dependent; neither intact nor emasculated flowers turn into fruit, yet whereas C. hildmannianus is self-incompatible, P. aculeata is fully self-compatible. In sum, C. hildmannianus is more restrictive and specialized regarding its pollination and breeding system, whereas P. aculeata is more generalist. Understanding the pollination needs of these species is a necessary starting point towards their conservation but also for their proper management and eventual domestication.

Cactaceae Inventory of Venezuela: Estimates from Herbarium Collections

Cactaceae-Angiospermae, of American origin, with worldwide naturalized distribution, includes promising species in economics and ecology; being a threatened group, it requires floristic studies that support conservation programs. This study estimates the number of cacti species present in Venezuela, and it contributes to the knowledge of the family in the country by reviewing herbaria specimens. The information came from the herbaria (FLASA, IUTAG, HERZU, HMBLUZ, MER, MY, MYF, PORT and VEN) of the country. It was transcribed into a database and organized by herbaria, genus and species, based on the labels of the exsiccatae and digital photographs of the specimens. In addition, foreign specialists were consulted to resolve doubts about the identity of some taxa. The botanical specimens reviewed totaled 2,293. In Venezuela the family Cactaceae is represented by 26 genera, 63 species, 13 synonymies, six subspecies, one variety and 17 genera with unidentified species, including wild, cultivated and endemic species. Opuntia stood out for its greatest number of species (15), followed by the genera Melocactus (10), Epiphyllum and Cereus (6), Selenicereus, Pilosocereus and Cylindropuntia (4), Hylocereus (3), Rhipsalis, Mammillaria, Pereskia and Leuenbergeria (2). The other genera presented one species. The information generated here can be an input for the design of strategies for conservation, selection, production or other uses of the species of this important botanical group.

Conservação de sementes das cactáceas endêmicas da caatinga Pilosocereus pachycladus e Tacinga inamoena

ABSTRACT Ecosystems with dry soils are particularly sensitive to climate changes and anthropogenic actions, which represents a threat to the survival of many cactus species. Ex situ seed conservation strategies should be adopted to support in situ conservation. This study evaluated the effect of conservation conditions on germination and vigor of seeds of Pilosocereus pachycladus subsp. pernambucoensis and Tacinga inamoena. The seeds were packaged in paper bags and glass containers and stored under controlled (8 ± 1 °C; 56 ± 2% relative humidity) and non-controlled (24 ± 2 °C; 75 ± 5% relative humidity) environmental conditions for 0 (control), 12, 16, and 20 months. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design, in a 2 × 2 × 4 factorial arrangement (conservation environment × packaging × storage period) for each species. The variables evaluated were: water content (%), germination (%), germination speed index (GSI), and mean germination time (MGT). The physiological quality of seeds of both species were preserved when seeds were maintained under controlled environment, regardless of the packaging. However, when stored under non-controlled environment, the packaging in paper bags was more efficient for the conservation of seeds of P. pachycladus subsp. pernambucoensis, and the glass container was more efficient for T. inamoena. This information may be needed for ex situ conservation of these species and to support the recovery of degraded areas susceptible to desertification in the Caatinga biome.

Mutualistic interaction network structure between bird and plant species in a semi-arid Neotropical environment

Mutualistic interactions between animals and plants are essential for ecosystem functioning, providing ecosystem services such as pollination and seed dispersal. The temporal dynamics of plant phenology and animal abundance, induced by seasonal variation in precipitation and resource availability, may influence the structure of animal-plant interaction network. In this paper, we analyzed the mutualistic network structure between birds and plants in a seasonally tropical dry forest in Brazil during the dry and rainy seasons. We recorded 160 interactions between 21 bird species and 11 plant species. In general, networks had low connectance (C = 26%), nestedness (wNODF = 27.54), and modular pattern (Qw = 0.33). Despite the number of interactions being higher in the rainy season, network parameters were consistent across the seasons and presented no explicit differences. However, the network connectance was slightly higher in the rainy season than in the dry season, while the specialization index was higher in the dry season than in the rainy season. Elaenia sp., Mimus saturninus, and Cyanocorax cyanopogon were the bird species that presented the highest number of links. On the other hand, Xiquexique gounellei, Cereus jamacaru, and Pilosocereus pachycladus were the most consumed plant species. The generalized pattern observed suggests that bird-plant interaction in Caatinga may be appropriate to the variable and irregular patterns found in dry forests. Our data reinforce the role of species of the Cactaceae family in maintaining bird communities in semiarid environments. Therefore, due to the high functional importance of those cacti species in influencing both the network stability and the species maintenance in the community, priority attention should be given to them in conservation programs.

Ants associated to prickly pear cactus crop in Texcoco, State of Mexico

In Mexico, center of domestication of prickly pear cactus species (also called “nopales”) few studies exist on insects associated with this crop. The studies are scantier on ants, since the majority are not considered to be pest. For this motive, the population dynamics of the ants was studied in experimental prickly pear crop in the installation of Colegio de Postgraduados, Mexico. The sample was fortnightly performed from February 2013 to March 2014. Ants were gathered with pitfall traps and arboreal traps, all of them with three baits and others without bait. Also recorded raiding, the nests in crop and inside to the cladodes. We collected a total of 10,953 individuals (74 % on ground and 26% on prickly pear cladodes), and seven species were determined: Hypoponera opacior (Forel), Neivamyrmex nigrescens (Cresson), Pogonomyrmex barbatus (Smith), Linepithema humile (Mayr), Camponotus atriceps (Smith), Pheidole obtusospinosa Forel and Monomorium minimum (Buckley). The last four were more abundant and frequent. We discuss the presence and nesting of ants in crop and their association with other insects of prickly pear crop.

Multivariate Analysis of Physical and Chemical Soil Attributes Under Forage Palm Cultivation and Agriculture Reuse in the Semiarid Region

The use of treated effluents (UTE) for irrigation has grown considerably in recent years, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. The objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of soil fertility under cultivation with forage cactus intercropped with different legumes. The experiment was conducted over a period of two years in a research unit that uses irrigation with reuse water (RW) in consortia of cactus species with wood and forage legumes. The soil layers were analyzed in the layers of 0-10 and 10-20 cm in three seasons: T0: without reuse water (RW); T1: dry season + reuse water (RW); T2: wet season + reuse water (RW) under cultivation of three palm varieties or cochineal cactus (mexican elephant ear palm, small palm and baiana). The soil attributes evaluated were granulometry, soil density, pH, salinity, sodicity, macronutrients, organic matter, Mineral N and total organic carbon stock (O.C.S). The plants were periodically irrigated with domestic effluent treated with constant irrigation 2 L h-1. The data were subjected to multivariate statistical analysis, using correlation matrix, cluster analysis, and factorial analysis considering the factors as principal components. According to the factorial analysis, Factor 1 (F1) and Factor 2 (F2)—F1 consisting of Sand, Ca2+, pHs, stock of. K and base saturation (V), and F2 consisting of Soil Organic Matter (SOM), stock of. Mg, CEC, stock of Ca2+, clay and soil density—were essential to differentiate the environments. The cluster analysis formed four groups. The structural groups showed greater similarity, denoting the relationship between source material and land use, followed by the chemical groups pHs, Ac. Pot., V+, CEC, Na+, stock of Na+, PST, and Ds; the structural weighted total porosity, stock of P.; Ksoil, stock of K, and Mg, SB, Te, stock of . Mg, and finally stock of Total, stock of Nitrog, Nit. Inorg.; SOM, TOC, Ca2+ and Tp of soil. This is a local peculiarity due to the climatic pattern of the Brazilian semiarid region in use of domestic sewage treated in agriculture as a forage index and as a social factor. The multivariate statistical analysis through principal component analysis and clustering made it possible to form groups according to soil attributes, which can help in decision making regarding soil fertility and fertilization management in this region with agricultural reuse application mainly in semiarid regions of Brazil.

Comparative nectar dynamics in four ornithophilous Melocactus (Cactaceae) species in a seasonally dry tropical forest

AbstractNectar is an important floral resource, often representing the only source of water for pollinators in arid environments. We investigated whether successive nectar removal would affect the nectar production dynamics of four Melocactus species growing in the Caatinga domain. Nectar was serially extracted from flowers four times per day at regular 60‐min intervals after anthesis. The cactus species showed a consistent pattern of secretion linked to ornithophily, with no significant responses to successive nectar removal and no reabsorption. Nectar secretion covered the entire period of anthesis, starting at 2:30 p.m. and continuing to 5:30 p.m., with the production of 11–38 μl per flower, with sugar concentrations of 10%–32% (3–16 mg of sugar). Individual flowers produced average amounts of 16.9–3.43 mg of sugar per day, corresponding to energy values of 0.06–0.28 kJ. Sympatric populations produced an average of 150–200 flowers per day. The nectar produced by Melocactus can therefore meet the daily energy needs of hummingbirds, which is of special importance during the dry season, when resources are scarce in the Caatinga.

Impacts of climate change on the potential distribution of epiphytic cacti in the Caatinga biome, Brazil

The Caatinga biome is the largest dry tropical forest region in South America as well as one of the most vulnerable regions in the world to the climate changes forecast for this century. Climate forecasts for the biome include increased air temperature, reduced rainfall and aridization. This biome does not have a homogeneous landscape; instead it has several rainforest enclaves. This article describes a study to model the potential distribution of four epiphytic cactus species (Epiphyllum phyllanthus (L.) Haw., Rhipsalis floccosa Salm-Dyck ex Pfeiff., Rhipsalis lindbergiana K. Schum and Rhipsalis russellii Britton & Rose.) in the biome under future climate scenarios and traces out a prognosis for the enclaves and the biome. For that purpose, we used the MaxEnt modeling method, considering two future time intervals (2041-2060 and 2061-2080) and the interval 1961-1990 for the current situation, with the RCP4.5 and 8.5 scenarios. The projections for future potential distribution showed a spatial contractions greater than 88% found in the areas of high potential presence for the target species throughout the biome and in all the scenarios. The results strengthen the expectation of aridization in the Caatinga biome, with the loss or shrinkage of rainforest enclaves as time progresses.

The Ronaldo Wasum Cactarium at the Botanical Garden of Joinville Region University, Santa Catarina, Brazil

The Ronaldo Wasum Cactarium (RWC), at the Botanical Garden (BG) of Univille, Santa Catarina, was created on April 19, 2016. Its name is in honor of Professor Ronaldo Adelfo Wasum (in memoriam), ex Director of the BG of Caxias do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul State. One of the objectives of the RWC is the ex situ conservation of cactus and other succulents species, including rare and endangered ones. In the RWC collection, there are 86 species, four of Apocynaceae, 68 of Cactaceae and 14 of Euphorbiaceae, one endemic to Santa Catarina and 17 to Brazil. 63 species are threatened with extinction: one critically endangered, three endangered, six vulnerable, three near threatened, 48 of least concern and four are data deficient. The RWC is open to the community; visits are monitored by the BG team, the Trails Program and the Visit Program of Univille. Along with the other collections of live plants at the JB and the Herbarium Joinvillea (JOI), the CRW is an important source for scientific research, in addition to providing knowledge about plants and moments of contemplation of nature to visitors. This work aims to present the CRW collection, opening up possibilities for research and interaction with other institutions and professionals who work with these species.

Intake, digestibility, and ingestive behavior of sheep fed with thornless Mandacaru, cactus pear genotypes Orelha de Elefante Mexicana and Miúda

This study aimed to evaluate the intake, digestibility, and ingestive behavior of sheep fed with different species of forage cacti. Fifteen sheep (17.27kg ± 1 kg) were distributed in a completely randomized experimental design with three treatments and five replicates. The treatments were diets on a dry matter basis composed of 430.9 g kg-1 of thornless Mandacaru cactus (Cereus hildmannianus), 525.7 g kg-1 of cactus pear cv. Orelha de Elefante Mexicana (Opuntia stricta) and 492.1 g kg-1 of cactus pear cv. Miúda (Nopalea cochenillifera) in addition to Sabiá hay (Mimosa caesalpiniaefolia) (194.7 to 233.8 g kg-1), plus concentrate feed. The intake of the dry matter, organic matter, ether extract, neutral detergent fiber, total carbohydrates, non-fiber carbohydrates, total digestible nutrients and voluntary water intake in g day-1 was not differ (p > 0.05) by experimental diets. There were no differences (p > 0.05) in digestibility coefficients of the dry matter, organic matter, neutral detergent fiber, total carbohydrates, non-fiber carbohydrates, and total digestible nutrients between the experimental diets. The feeding times differed (p < 0.05) between diets, with a higher value for the Opuntia diet, while the rumination times, feeding efficiency, and rumination efficiency did not differ (p > 0.05). The cactus Cereus and Opuntia and Nopalea have similar nutritional value in sheep’s diet.

Current trends in cacti drying processes and their effects on cellulose and mucilage from two Colombian cactus species

The effect of temperature and drying technologies on mucilage and cellulose (obtained by the microwave-assisted extraction technique, MAE) from Opuntia ficus-indica (OFI) and Austrocylindropuntia cylindrica (CC) was determined using a conventional oven (CO) and Refractive Window (RW). Mathematical modeling was performed from drying kinetics data using the Lewis, Henderson-Pabis, Page, and Logarithmic models. Activation Energy (Ea) and Diffusivity (D) were also determined. The model with the best fit was the logarithmic one, with a correlation coefficient (R2) greater than 0.99. The obtained activation energies were 22.81 kJ mol−1 for Refractance window (RW) and 31.44 kJ mol−1 using conventional hot air drying (CO) while a diffusivity of 2.9 ∗10−8 m2 s−1 for RW and 1.3∗10−8 m2 s−1 for CO were found as well. According to our results, a greater drying efficiency and a less chemical deterioration of the plant sample are obtained by drying with Refractance window.

Peniocereus serpentinus AND Austrocylindropuntia subulata, NEW HOSTS OF THE CACTUS WEEVIL (Metamasius spinolae Gyllenhal) IN THE STATE OF MEXICO

The cactus weevil (Metamasius spinolae) is a pest of Opuntia ficus-indica. It can develop not only in Opuntia species but also in other cacti and members of the Asparagaceae family. In 2017, damage and presence of adult insects with characteristics similar to the cactus weevil were reported in two species of cacti, Austrocylindropuntia subulata and Peniocereus serpentinus. The objective was to identify the insect and determine if the two cacti species are hosts, field and laboratory research was conducted from 2017 to 2019 in the municipality of Axapusco, State of Mexico. Stems with larval damage were selected at four study sites, whic remained in field conditions until the emergence of adult insects. The behaviour of M. spinolae on the host plant, mating sites, incubation period and damage development over time were recorded. M. spinolae was identified and determined to fulfill its life cycle on A. subulata and P. serpentinus. Larvae cause the most damage by feeding on the internal part (pith) of the stems, which causes tissue rotting and death of the affected part. The adult feeds on tender buds and mature stems, causing deformation and weakening of the plant. The two cacti species proved to be host plants that can harbour populations of M. spinolae and, therefore, have a high potential to act as reservoirs of the pest, which can then migrate to prickly-pear cactus crop. This report expands the knowledge of hosts of the cactus weevil. The information obtained shall be useful for vegetable growers to apply phytosanitary measures in alternate hosts, combat reservoirs and avoid re-infestations of the pest.

Genomic and ecological evidence shed light on the recent demographic history of two related invasive insects

Hypogeococcus pungens is a species complex native to southern South America that is composed of at least five putative species, each one specialized in the use of different host plants. Two of these undescribed species were registered as invasive in Central and North America: Hyp-C is a cactophagous mealybug that became an important pest that threatens endemic cactus species in Puerto Rico, and Hyp-AP feeds on Amaranthaceae and Portulacaceae hosts, but does not produce severe damage to the host plants. We quantified genomic variation and investigated the demographic history of both invasive species by means of coalescent-based simulations using high throughput sequencing data. We also evaluated the incidence of host plant infestation produced by both species and used an ecological niche modeling approach to assess potential distribution under current and future climatic scenarios. Our genetic survey evinced the footprints of strong effective population size reduction and signals of genetic differentiation among populations within each species. Incidence of plant attacks varied between species and among populations within species, with some host plant species preferred over others. Ecological niche modeling suggested that under future climatic scenarios both species would expand their distribution ranges in Puerto Rico. These results provide valuable information for the design of efficient management and control strategies of the Puerto Rican cactus pest and shed light on the evolutionary pathways of biological invasions.

Cellulose in Secondary Xylem of Cactaceae: Crystalline Composition and Anatomical Distribution.

Cellulose is the main polymer that gives strength to the cell wall and is located in the primary and secondary cell walls of plants. In Cactaceae, there are no studies on the composition of cellulose. The objective of this work was to analyze the crystallinity composition and anatomical distribution of cellulose in Cactaceae vascular tissue. Twenty-five species of Cactaceae were collected, dried, and milled. Cellulose was purified and analyzed with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, the crystallinity indexes were calculated, and statistical analyzes were performed. Stem sections were fixed, cut, and stained with safranin O/fast green, for observation with epifluorescence microscopy. The crystalline cellulose ratios had statistical differences between Echinocereus pectinatus and Coryphantha pallida. All cacti species presented a higher proportion of crystalline cellulose. The fluorescence emission of the cellulose was red in color and distributed in the primary wall of non-fibrous species; while in the fibrous species, the distribution was in the pits. The high percentages of crystalline cellulose may be related to its distribution in the non-lignified parenchyma and primary walls of tracheary elements with helical or annular thickenings of non-fibrous species, possibly offering structural rigidity and forming part of the defense system against pathogens.

New mescaline-related N-acylhydrazone and its unsubstituted benzoyl derivative: Promising metallophores for copper-associated deleterious effects relief in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is related to the presence of extracellular aggregated amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), which binds copper(II) with high affinity in its N-terminal region. In this sense, two new 1-methylimidazole-containing N-acylhydrazonic metallophores, namely, X1TMP and X1Benz, were synthesized as hydrochlorides and characterized. The compound X1TMP contains the 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoyl moiety present in the structure of mescaline, a natural hallucinogenic protoalkaloid that occurs in some species of cacti. Single crystals of X1Benz, the unsubstituted derivative of X1TMP, were obtained. The experimental partition coefficients of both compounds were determined, as well as their apparent affinity for Cu2+ in aqueous solution. Ascorbate consumption assays showed that these N-acylhydrazones are able to lessen the production of ROS by the Cu(Aβ)-system, and a short-time scale aggregation study, measured through turbidity and confirmed by TEM images, revealed their capacity in preventing Aβ fibrillation at equimolar conditions in the presence and absence of copper. 1H15N HSQC NMR experiments demonstrated a direct interaction between Aβ and X1Benz, the most soluble of the compounds. The Cu2+ sequestering potential of this hydrazone towards Aβ was explored by 1H NMR. Although increasing amounts of X1Benz were unexpectedly not efficient at removing the metal-induced perturbations in Aβ backbone amides, the broadening effects observed on the compound's signals indicate the formation of a ternary Aβ‑copper-X1Benz species, which can be responsible for the observed ROS-lessening and aggregation-preventing activities. Overall, the N-acylhydrazones X1TMP and X1Benz have shown promising prospects as agents for the treatment of AD.

EFFECT OF AMAZON CACTUS (Cereus jamacaru) AS A NATURAL COAGULANT FOR THE REMOVAL OF TURBIDITY FROM SURFACE WATER

Background: Brazil suffers from a lack of basic sanitation in many regions, intensified in the Amazon region due to its difficult access. The application of natural coagulants is a promising alternative since it eliminates the use of chemicals, is a simple, low-cost method that is easy to reproduce, and is accessible to any community, thus promoting health and environmental improvements. On the other hand, the use of chemical coagulants can cause harm to the environment and human health. Aim: Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the coagulation effect of a species of Amazonian cactus applied in the treatment of water for human consumption. Methods: For the study, about 500 grams of the aerial part of the Cereus jamacaru was collected on the banks of the BR 174 in the region of Roraima. The spines were removed in the laboratory, the plant material was washed, cut to a thickness, dried in an oven at 60 °C for 36 hours, then ground and sieved until obtaining a powder, which was tested as a natural coagulant. The water used in the study was collected from the Branco River in Boa Vista, Roraima, and characterized its initial turbidity. Results: The dosage of 0.2g of the natural cactus coagulant showed a significant reduction in the turbidity of the study water, leaving it within the potability standards established for groundwater. Discussion: Coagulation in the sanitary context is evidenced by the removal of microscopic particles associated with pathogenic microorganisms, normally found in raw water and with very low sedimentation speed. Replacing polluting chemical substances with natural coagulants in the treatment of water for human consumption contributes to the quality of life. Conclusion: The Amazonian cactus Cereus jamacaru demonstrated coagulation efficiency for analyzing the turbidity parameter of water for human consumption.

Latitudinal gradients in biotic interactions: Are cacti pollination systems more specialized in the tropics?

Biotic interactions are said to be more specialized in the tropics, and this was also proposed for the pollination systems of columnar cacti from North America. However, this has not yet been tested for a wider set of cactus species. Here, we use the available information about pollination in the Cactaceae to explore the geographic patterns of this mutualistic interaction, and test if there is a latitudinal gradient in its degree of specialization. We performed a bibliographic search of all publications on the pollination of cacti species and summarized the information to build a database. We used generalized linear models to evaluate if the degree of specialization in cacti pollination systems is affected by latitude, using two different measures: the number of pollinator guilds (functional specialization) and the number of pollinator species (ecological specialization). Our database contained information about the pollination of 148 species. The most frequent pollinator guilds were bees, birds, moths and bats. There was no apparent effect of latitude on the number of guilds that pollinate a cactus species. However, latitude had a small but significant effect on the number of pollinator species that service a given cactus species. Bees are found as pollinators of most cactus species, along a wide latitudinal gradient. Bat and bird pollination is more common in the tropics than in the extra-tropics. The available information suggests that cacti pollination systems are slightly more ecologically specialized in the tropics, but it does not support any trend with regard to functional specialization.

Spatial patterns of evolutionary diversity in Cactaceae show low ecological representation within protected areas

Mapping biodiversity patterns across taxa and environments is crucial to address the evolutionary and ecological dimensions of species distribution, suggesting areas of particular importance for conservation purposes. Within Cactaceae, spatial diversity patterns are poorly explored, as are the abiotic factors that may predict these patterns. We gathered geographic and genetic data from 921 cactus species by exploring both the occurrence and genetic databases, which are tightly associated with drylands, to evaluate diversity patterns, such as phylogenetic diversity and endemism, paleo-, neo-, and superendemism, and the environmental predictor variables of such patterns in a global analysis. Hotspot areas of cacti diversity are scattered along the Neotropical and Nearctic regions, mainly in the desertic portion of Mesoamerica, Caribbean Island, and the dry diagonal of South America. The geomorphological features of these regions may create a complexity of areas that work as locally buffered zones over time, which triggers local events of diversification and speciation. Desert and dryland/dry forest areas comprise paleo- and superendemism and may act as both museums and cradles of species, displaying great importance for conservation. Past climates, topography, soil features, and solar irradiance seem to be the main predictors of distinct endemism types. The hotspot areas that encompass a major part of the endemism cells are outside or poorly covered by formal protection units. The current legally protected areas are not able to conserve the evolutionary diversity of cacti. Given the rapid anthropogenic disturbance, efforts must be reinforced to monitor biodiversity and the environment and to define/plan current and new protected areas.

Development and validation of an LC-MS/MS method for the quantification of mescaline and major metabolites in human plasma

Mescaline is a psychedelic phenethylamine found in different species of cacti. Currently, mescaline’s acute subjective effects and pharmacokinetics are investigated in several modern clinical studies. Therefore, we developed a bioanalytical method for the rapid quantification of mescaline and its metabolites in human plasma. Mescaline and its metabolites 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenylacetic acid (TMPAA), N-acetyl mescaline (NAM), and 3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxyphenethylamine (4-desmethyl mescaline) were simultaneously analyzed by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Optimal chromatographic separation was achieved with an Acquity Premier HSS T3 C18 column. The analytes were detected in positive ionization mode using scheduled multiple reaction monitoring. A single step extraction method was implemented to enable fast and automatable plasma sample preparation. An intra-assay accuracy between 84.9% and 106% and a precision of ≤ 7.33% was observed in three validation runs. Plasma was extracted by simple protein precipitation, resulting in a complete recovery (≥ 98.3%) and minor matrix effects (≤ 7.58%). No interference with endogenous matrix components could be detected in human plasma samples (n = 7). Importantly, method sensitivity sufficed for assessing pharmacokinetic parameters of mescaline in clinical study samples with lower limits of quantification of 12.5, 12.5, and 1.25 ng/mL for mescaline, TMPAA, and NAM, respectively. Nonetheless, 4-desmethyl mescaline could not be selectively quantified in pharmacokinetic samples due to interference with another mescaline metabolite. Overall, we developed and validated a reliable and very easy-to-use method for forensic applications as well as investigating the clinical pharmacokinetics of mescaline.

Hiding in plain sight: Cryptic enemies are found on cochineal (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae), a scale insect of economic and cultural significance.

Cochineal is the common name for cactus‐feeding scale insects in the Dactylopiidae. These ruby‐red insects include the domesticated dye insect Dactylopius coccus. Dactylopius coccus and congeners have been introduced around the world, some accidentally, to become pests of prickly pear cactus species (Opuntia), and some intentionally, for dye production or biological control of pest Opuntia. In the northern Sonoran Desert (Tucson, AZ, USA), we studied the enemy complex of D. opuntiae and D. confusus on Opuntia and characterized two cryptic enemies, a coccinellid beetle predator and a parasitoid wasp. (1) Hyperaspis sp. The coccinellid predator Hyperaspis trifurcata shares a niche with a similar, typically all‐black beetle. Morphological data, crossing tests, and phylogenetic results showed the black beetle to be a distinct, undescribed species in the genus Hyperaspis, with a rare spotted phenotype that is similar in appearance to H. trifurcata. Crossing tests among black and spotted forms showed the spotted morph is inherited as a single‐locus dominant allele. (2) Formicencyrtus thoreauini. Rearing of this ant‐like parasitoid wasp (Encyrtidae) in pure culture of D. opuntiae showed it to be a semi‐gregarious primary parasitoid of cochineal. To our knowledge, this is the first confirmed instance of a cochineal parasitoid. Observations of development show early instar larvae keep their posterior end within the egg chorion, attached to an aeroscopic plate with a connection to the cochineal body wall. Late instar larvae are eventually surrounded by a membrane, likely of larval origin. Wasps then pupate in a dry air‐filled chamber within the desiccated scale remains before chewing out as an adult. Both Hyperaspis sp. and F. thoreauini may have restricted distributions. Hyperaspis sp. does not appear to be a member of the cochineal community in Mexico or Texas, and scant records suggest F. thoreauini may also be restricted to the Southwestern USA.