Species In Scotland Research Articles

Distribution of non-native terrestrial and freshwater amphibians and reptiles in Scotland

Surveillance of non-native species is important for biosecurity and ecological reasons. This paper presents a baseline of the distribution of non-native terrestrial and freshwater amphibian and reptile species in Scotland. Multiple datasets were used to confirm which non-native terrestrial and freshwater species of amphibians and reptiles are currently present in Scotland, and map their known distribution. Citizen Science records were found to be extremely useful when photographs were included. Four non-native terrestrial and freshwater amphibian and reptile species were found to be present in Scotland, including Alpine newt (Ichthyosaura alpestris), sand lizard (Lacerta agilis), Chinese pond turtle (Mauremys reevesii), and common slider (Trachemys scripta).

Projected increases in extreme drought frequency and duration by 2040 affect specialist habitats and species in Scotland

Abstract Climate‐driven increases in drought occurrence are an overlooked risk in temperate climates, which may be less resilient to water scarcity than arid habitats. Scotland provides an example of a temperate oceanic climate in which drought risk is understudied, but could have substantial ecological impacts, particularly in combination with additional stressors. We modelled changes to risk of extreme drought occurrence in Scotland, and considered potential impacts of these changes on two key habitats, ombrotrophic (precipitation fed) wetlands and temperate rainforest. Using temperature and precipitation data from the UK Climate Projections 2018 and the drought index Standardized Precipitation‐Evapotranspiration Index, we calculated and mapped likely changes in extreme drought for the near future (2021–2040) in comparison to a baseline (1981–2001). We found likelihood of extreme drought events increased from an average of one event every 20 years in the baseline period, to one event every 3 years by 2040. Typical events were projected to be up to 2–3 months longer, with an average of 11 extra drought months per decade. Increases were projected throughout the country, but the effect was most severe in the east, and during autumn. Ombrotrophic wetlands have some level of adaptive resilience to drought, but are considered at high risk as several key sites are in drought hotspot areas. In contrast, Scotland's temperate rainforest is located in lower risk areas, but is typically less drought resilient. Potential impacts on these habitats include reductions in ecosystem services including carbon capture, reduced breeding success for multiple taxa and increased competition among plant communities, which threatens drought‐sensitive species. These projections suggest that climate‐driven drought risk is a significant and imminent threat, even in wet climates. In Scotland, the results can direct mitigation and management actions to areas likely to be at greatest risk, as well as informing conservation interventions that can cope with drought. Additionally, other areas with a temperate oceanic climate may be at risk of extreme drought and could experience similar consequences. Therefore, these results have implications both for facilitating improved resilience to extreme drought in Scotland and for potentially overlooked impacts of drought in oceanic climates elsewhere.

Recent changes in colony sizes of two seabird species in Scotland are not strongly influenced by Birds Directive status of the colony

Special Protection Areas (SPAs) designated under the EU Birds Directive have improved the conservation status of many terrestrial bird species in Europe, but protecting breeding sites may be less effective for highly mobile birds such as seabirds. Colony census data for Great Skuas Stercorarius skua and Great Black‐backed Gulls Larus marinus in Scotland show that breeding numbers have fared no better in sites where these species are SPA breeding features and, counter‐intuitively, the evidence indicates better performance in non‐SPA colonies, most likely because non‐SPA colonies are generally smaller so are less subject to density‐dependent competition. The main drivers of population change are widespread rather than colony‐based in these two species with recent reductions in carrying capacity. Many other seabird species are vulnerable to similar widespread pressures so seabird conservation strategy needs to focus on mitigating these pressures, as designation of seabird breeding sites as SPAs is not enough to ensure effective seabird conservation.

Designing with biodiversity data: connections among design, materials, and technology

Data visualisation plays an integral role in the communication of complex data between expert and non-expert audiences. However, heretofore, large uncertainties remain concerning how people understand and interact with massive amounts of data. In this paper, we describe the design and evaluation of a series of interactive data physicalising installations, aim to evaluate the potential influence of technology upon traditional comprehension of material items, its connection to meaning and value, and how technology that allows for an extension of this thinking builds an emotional connection between audiences and the intangible object, ‘data’. The design of prototypes was driven by data of the three least appearing species in Scotland. Analysis of 60 audience members’ responses reveals the positive design potential of further exploring innovative design methods to engage people with data. Likewise, the results provide empirical evidence regarding hands-on experience with integrative data visualisation in a realistic scenario and suggest that inventive forms of visualisation could potentially trigger people’s emotional and memorial reactions, which may affect their decision making at an unconscious level

Cheiracanthid acanthodians from the lower fossil fish-bearing horizons (Eifelian, Middle Devonian) of the Orcadian Basin, Scotland

Vertebrate fossils are extremely rare below the Achanarras fish beds and equivalent strata in northern Scotland. Here we describe the cheiracanthid acanthodians from the lowest Middle Devonian of this region, comprising partial articulated specimens and squamation patches of two species Cheiracanthus flabellicostatus and C. brevicostatus . Both species were previously only known as isolated scales from the eastern Baltic and Russia. The stratigraphic range of the two species in Scotland extends up into the Achanarras equivalent fish beds in the Moray Firth.

Drought risk to timber production – A risk versus return comparison of commercial conifer species in Scotland

Climate change will alter precipitation patterns across the world increasing drought risk to forests in some areas, especially where summer precipitation is reduced. Effective management of this risk requires quantified information on the probabilities and consequences of drought to support policy and strategic decisions on the choice of tree species that will provide drought resilience and ensure continued timber supply. Here we define a new approach to delivering this information to underpin management decisions on species choice for restocking. We derive location-specific risk versus return analyses, for twenty commercial timber species in Scotland, by quantifying the impact of drought risk under a high emission scenario on potential return, modelled as change in baseline volume of timber production (yield in m3 ha−1). We find that the current potential yield of Sitka spruce is likely to be sufficiently high to compensate for its relatively high drought susceptibility compared to alternative species, modelled over a new 50-year rotation. In regions projected to experience increased drought risk - particularly central and eastern areas of Scotland - the higher drought tolerance of some species means that they are likely to be viable alternatives to Sitka spruce, based on a threshold productivity which we set for the purposes of this analysis as ≥90% of predicted Sitka spruce yield. Since species diversification is a potential strategy to increase forest resilience against other risks, such as those from pest and diseases, our analysis provides a framework within which these regional decisions can be made. Risk management strategies should be introduced which include the risk from drought to commercial softwood plantations and thereby help protect timber volume production. The modelling approach outlined could be adapted to compare timber species in other regions where comparable data are available.

FIVE DECADES OF DECLINE FOR OLD-GROWTH INDICATOR LICHENS IN SCOTLAND

Systematic data collection for direct statistical analysis of biodiversity trends tends to be focused on charismatic fauna and flora such as birds or vascular plants. When subsequently applied by conservation agencies in summary metrics tracking habitat and species protection, these patterns in biodiversity loss or gain can fail to capture outcomes for groups that have a prominent importance in habitat composition, diversity and ecological function, such as algae, bryophytes, lichens and other fungi. Such species are primarily recorded on an ad hoc basis by taxonomic specialists, yielding noisy data that present problems in robustly identifying trends. This study explored the use of ad hoc field-recorded data as a potential source of biodiversity information, by comparing the pattern of recording for carefully selected indicator species with those for benchmark or control species as a proxy for recording effort. Focusing on Scotland’s internationally important epiphytic lichens, and especially ‘old-growth’ indicator species, British Lichen Society data revealed a decline in the extent of these species in Scotland, relative to recording effort, over a period of five decades. A recent slowing in the rate of decline is observed but remains to be confirmed. The long-term decline is consistent with the effect of land use intensification, resulting in small and isolated populations that are vulnerable to extinction debt. We caution that remedial protection and monitoring for such populations remains vital as a complement to Scotland’s larger scale ambition for increased woodland extent and connectivity.

Amphibian conservation in Scotland: A review of threats and opportunities

Abstract The distributions and conservation status of the six native amphibian species in Scotland are reviewed. Issues of under‐recording and false recording are noted, and steps to remedy these problems are described. Threats to amphibians in Scotland include diseases (a minor impact so far), road deaths, habitat loss, and climate change (to which populations may be resilient). Exploitation, competition, and pollution do not appear to be significant threats to amphibians in Scotland. Legal protection is currently strongest for the great crested newts (Triturus cristatus) and natterjack toads (Epidalea calamita), but the natterjack toads have only a small localized Scottish population. The ponds at Gartcosh hold the largest great crested newt population in Scotland. Translocation to a specially created reserve appears to have been successful but a new road across the site is an additional hazard, for which monitoring is in progress. Amphibian habitat enhancement in Scotland includes pond‐creation programmes, which have successfully increased the diversity of plants and invertebrates as well as amphibians. The value of Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) for amphibians and other wildlife is reviewed. The Eurasian beaver reintroduction programme may benefit amphibians in the longer term, but research is currently lacking. Road tunnels combined with fences are a vital mitigation for road‐traffic impacts on amphibians and have been monitored at one Scottish site. Amphibian ladders in road drains are another potentially helpful mitigation. The amphibians of Scotland need more long‐term monitoring. A national strategy is imminent and should stimulate the required research and action.

Applying a process-based livestock model to predict spatial variation in agricultural nutrient flows in Scotland

Achieving an optimal nutrient balance is one of the main targets of sustainable agriculture. The aim of this study was to identify “hotspots” of agricultural nutrient imbalance. This was done by developing a modelling framework and using it to analyse the spatial distribution of agricultural nitrogen and phosphorus flows. The nutrient flows for the main livestock species in Scotland (namely cattle, sheep, pigs and chickens), were quantified using the Scottish Agricultural Emission Model (SAEM). The model was used in connection with agricultural census data for Scotland, which provided spatial distribution of the livestock production, including numbers of animals in certain livestock categories. The average fertiliser application rates for the main crops in Scotland were obtained from the British Survey of Fertiliser Practice and were used as an indicator of the nutrient demand for these crops. The Scottish agricultural census data were used to determine the spatial distribution of different arable crops and grassland in Scotland. This spatial information was combined with the nutrient excretion results to determine the nutrient balance. The results show that the areas with highest nitrogen fertiliser application rate are mainly located in central and eastern Scotland, including the areas where cereal production mainly occurs, while areas where the availability of excreted nutrients is highest are located in southern and north eastern Scotland, i.e. in the main cattle production areas. The higher stability of excreted phosphorus compared to nitrogen allowed a more detailed analysis of a regional phosphorus balance. In major parts of the agricultural production areas in eastern Scotland, the fertiliser application rate (crop nutrient demand) exceeds the amount of phosphorus excreted by the livestock. There are also areas where high phosphorus fertiliser application rate (crop production) and organic phosphorus output (from animal production) overlap, indicating that in these areas there is a high potential to re-use the phosphorus excreted by livestock. Compared to other spatial models for nutrient flows, the modelling framework utilizing a process-based livestock model provides scope to analyse the effects of livestock management and potential changes in livestock systems on regional nutrient balances in more detail.

Physiological and behavioural responses to hypoxia in an invasive freshwater fish species and a native competitor

AbstractThe spread of invasive species is one of the major environmental concerns which can have negative effects on biodiversity. While several life history traits have been identified as being important for increasing the invasiveness of introduced species, the physiological factors that allow certain species to become successful invaders remain poorly understood. It has been speculated that good invaders are thriving in disturbed environments. In unfavourable conditions, as during hypoxic events, invasive species might be better adapted in their physiological and behavioural responses towards this stressor. We compared physiological and behavioural traits between two freshwater fish species: the European bullhead (Cottus gobio), an invasive fish species in Scotland, and its native competitor the stone loach (Barbatula barbatula) over different dissolved oxygen concentrations (DO). Contrary to expectations, bullhead displayed a reduced hypoxia tolerance as compared to stone loach, indicated by a higher threshold (Pcrit) for the maintenance of standard metabolism. Avoidance behaviour during progressive hypoxia was similar between bullhead and stone loach. When given a choice between an open normoxic zone and a shelter located in hypoxia, both species spent most of their time hiding under the shelter in hypoxic conditions (bullhead: 100%; stone loach: 93.93%–99.73%), although stone loach showed brief excursions into normoxic conditions under 25% DO level. These results suggest that stone loach might be more resistant to hypoxia as compared to bullhead, and thus that increased hypoxia tolerance is likely not a trait by which bullhead have been able to expand their range within the United Kingdom.

A Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis from the River Clyde – the first record of this invasive, non-native species in Scotland

The remains (probably a moult) of a female Chinese mitten crab were found in the freshwater River Clyde. This is the first report of a Chinese mitten crab from the wild in Scotland and is well outside the previously recorded range of the species in Great Britain. The origin of this specimen remains enigmatic but this finding has potentially serious implications for the Clyde catchment, the biota of which is recovering from centuries of poor water quality and structural modification. Work is now required to determine whether the Clyde has been colonised by the Chinese mitten crab and, if so, to establish the size of the resident population, its associated threat to local biodiversity and the implications for river management under the European Union Water Framework Directive.

Inter and intra-population phenotypic and genotypic structuring in the European whitefish Coregonus lavaretus, a rare freshwater fish in Scotland.

This study revealed between-lake genetic structuring between Coregonus lavaretus collected from the only two native populations of this species in Scotland, U.K. (Lochs Eck and Lomond) evidenced by the existence of private alleles (12 in Lomond and four in Eck) and significant genetic differentiation (FST = 0·056) across 10 microsatellite markers. Juvenile C. lavaretus originating from eggs collected from the two lakes and reared in a common-garden experiment showed clear phenotypic differences in trophic morphology (i.e. head and body shape) between these populations indicating that these characteristics were, at least partly, inherited. Microsatellite analysis of adults collected from different geographic regions within Loch Lomond revealed detectable and statistically significant but relatively weak genetic structuring (FST = 0·001-0·024) and evidence of private alleles related to the basin structure of the lake. Within-lake genetic divergence patterns suggest three possibilities for this observed pattern: (1) differential selection pressures causing divergence into separate gene pools, (2) a collapse of two formerly divergent gene pools and (3) a stable state maintained by balancing selection forces resulting from spatial variation in selection and lake heterogeneity. Small estimates of effective population sizes for the populations in both lakes suggest that the capacity of both populations to adapt to future environmental change may be limited.

What is the origin of the Scottish populations of the European endemicCherleria sedoides(Caryophyllaceae)?

Cherleria sedoides L. (Minuartia sedoides (L.) Hiern) is a montane perennial which, with some species in Minuartia sect. Spectabiles, is more closely related to Scleranthus than to other Minuartia species and is therefore best restored to the reinstated and redefined genus Cherleria. Reconstruction of the ancestral area of the clade containing C. sedoides suggests that it evolved in the Alps or the Balkan peninsula. The species now has an unusual distribution, being present in the mountains of southern Europe and Scotland but absent from the Arctic. Three historical scenarios that might have led to the presence of the species in Scotland are outlined and tested by a molecular analysis comparing Scottish populations with populations from the Pyrenees and the Alps. The sampled populations show little variation in internal transcribed spacer (ITS)/external transcribed spacer (ETS) but much more in cpDNA. The latter reveals a major division between some Alpine material and the other Alpine, Pyrenean and Scottish plants. Once the anomalous Alpine haplotypes are excluded, Scottish populations are at least as variable as those from the Alps and Pyrenees, and are closely related to both. We conclude that they have not undergone a long period of isolation, nor have they originated by recent, long-distance dispersal from the Alps or Pyrenees. They appear to be derived from a metapopulation that was probably widespread at the last glacial maximum (LGM) and gave rise to the Alpine, Pyrenean and Scottish plants.

Rapid assessment of marine non-native species in northern Scotland and a synthesis of existing Scottish records

In this study, we compiled existing records of fouling marine non-native species in Scotland, and created a national checklist of these species. We then targeted a selection of these species (excluding those that could not be reliably identified) in a rapid assessment survey of 27 harbours in the north of Scotland. Collation of existing records revealed that 23 fouling marine non-native species were known to be present in Scotland. The geographic distribution of these records was not uniform, and they were largely underrepresented in the north and east of mainland Scotland, likely as result of lack of survey effort. In the rapid assessment survey of north Scotland, 9 out of 18 targeted species were found: Austrominius modestus (Darwin, 1854); Botrylloides violaceus Oka, 1927; Caprella mutica Schurin, 1935; Codium fragile fragile (Suringar) Hariot, 1889; Corella eumyota Traustedt, 1882; Heterosiphonia japonica Yendo, 1920; Neosiphonia harveyi (Bailey) Kim, Choi, Guiry and Saunders, 2001; Schizoporella japonica Ortmann, 1890; and Tricellaria inopinata d'Hondt and Occhipinti Ambrogi, 1985. The non-native bryozoan Bugula simplex Hincks, 1886, which was not targeted, was also found, and this constituted the first confirmed Scottish record. The surveys provided 60 new records and extended the northward national range for most of the species found. The number of fouling non-native species in the surveyed harbours was positively associated with the presence of floating structures and vessel activity indices. Our study presents an overview of the current status of fouling marine non-native species in Scotland, and the results of the first comprehensive survey of these species in the north of Scotland. The latter provides a baseline dataset for monitoring future changes, which may occur as a result of the development of the wave and tidal energy industry in the north of Scotland. The wave and tidal energy industry has the potential to facilitate the invasion of fouling marine non-native species through the provision of habitat and by increasing vector activity.

Phytophthora Species Infecting Hardy Ornamentals in Nurseries and the Managed Environment in Scotland

AbstractBetween 2002 and the end of 2009, more than 4000 samples from hardy ornamental plants, collected in surveys for Phytophthora ramorum, were examined to establish the occurrence and diversity of Phytophthora species in Scotland. The samples were gathered from more than 77 plant genera in nurseries, gardens and amenity landscapes. Fifteen different Phytophthora spp. were isolated and identified either by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or by sequencing of the ITS1, 5.8S subunit and ITS2 region of the ribosomal RNA gene. The most widespread Phytophthora spp. were P. ramorum and P. syringae, followed by P. cactorum, P. kernoviae, P. plurivora, P. cambivora, P. citrophthora, P. taxon ‘Pgchlamydo’, P. pseudosyringae and some single isolates of P. cinnamomi, P. cryptogea, P. gonapodyides, P. nicotianae and P. hibernalis. One isolate did not match any known species. In relation to the number of samples, Phytophthora was found more frequently in trade premises than in gardens or amenity landscapes and the species diversity was higher, highlighting the risks involved in plant trade.

The Impact of Past Introductions on an Iconic and Economically Important Species, the Red Deer of Scotland

The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is an iconic species in Scotland and, due to its value as a game species, an important element of the Scottish rural economy. The native status of this species is sometimes questioned because of many recorded introductions of nonnative deer in the past that were an attempt to improve trophy size. In this study, we assessed the impact of past introductions on the genetic makeup of Scottish red deer by genotyping at 15 microsatellite loci a large number of samples (n = 1152), including mainland and island Scottish red deer and individuals from several putative external source populations used in introductions to improve trophy size. Population structure and introgression assessment analyses revealed that the impact of introductions was weak in Highland red deer populations but more prominent on the islands, especially on those where current red deer populations are mostly or entirely derived from introductions (Harris & Lewis, Arran, and Rum). Frequent imports of Central-Eastern European red deer into English deer parks were reflected in the higher genetic introgression values found in some of the individuals collected in parks.

Impacts of climate, host and landscape factors on Culicoides species in Scotland

Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) vector a wide variety of internationally important arboviral pathogens of livestock and represent a widespread biting nuisance. This study investigated the influence of landscape, host and remotely-sensed climate factors on local abundance of livestock-associated species in Scotland, within a hierarchical generalized linear model framework. The Culicoides obsoletus group and the Culicoides pulicaris group accounted for 56% and 41%, respectively, of adult females trapped. Culicoides impunctatus Goetghebuer and C. pulicaris s.s. Linnaeus were the most abundant and widespread species in the C. pulicaris group (accounting for 29% and 10%, respectively, of females trapped). Abundance models performed well for C. impunctatus, Culicoides deltus Edwards and Culicoides punctatus Meigen (adjusted R(2) : 0.59-0.70), but not for C. pulicaris s.s. (adjusted R(2) : 0.36) and the C. obsoletus group (adjusted R(2) : 0.08). Local-scale abundance patterns were best explained by models combining host, landscape and climate factors. The abundance of C. impunctatus was negatively associated with cattle density, but positively associated with pasture cover, consistent with this species' preference in the larval stage for lightly grazed, wet rush pasture. Predicted abundances of this species varied widely among farms even over short distances (less than a few km). Modelling approaches that may facilitate the more accurate prediction of local abundance patterns for a wider range of Culicoides species are discussed.

Survey and management of mussel Mytilus species in Scotland

The important ecological role of Mytilus mussels in marine ecosystems, their high abundance in coastal waters and the demand for human consumption has made them a target species for aquaculture. Mussel cultivation is the most important and rapidly growing sector of the Scottish shellfish aquaculture industry and until recently production was considered to be based exclusively on the native species Mytilus edulis. However, the sympatric occurrence of M. edulis, M. trossulus, M. galloprovincialis and their hybrids in cultivation has recently been reported and significant production losses (over 50% at some sites) have been attributed to the presence of fragile-shelled M. trossulus. Given the ecological and economical importance of these species, an urgent need arose for a wider understanding of Mytilus species distribution on Scottish coasts and its implication for the sustainability of the Scottish shellfish industry. Here we present a summary of a 3-year project established within the “ECOsystem approach to SUstainable Management of the Marine Environment and its living Resources” (ECOSUMMER) Marie Curie network to address this need. We developed DNA-based molecular assays for the detection and surveillance of the different Mytilus species in Scotland. Several potential management strategies have been explored, aimed at favouring M. edulis production at mixed-species sites, but these have so far not been found to provide the reliable efficacy necessary for adoption by the industry. Complete eradication of M. trossulus from economically affected areas in Scotland may be unrealistic, especially considering that its introduction and distribution mechanisms in the environment remain uncertain. Area-specific solutions to managing the problem may thus be required, which may or may not involve eradication and fallowing (clearance of mussels from production sites for a given period of time). Nevertheless, the current distribution of M. trossulus is limited and its spread outside its existing range is clearly undesirable. Any management solutions must also be accompanied by an industry wide strategy and awareness, for example, through the development of an industry supported code of good practice.

Compétence vectorielle des espèces de <em>Culicoides</em> britanniques pour le sérotype 8 du virus de la fièvre catarrhale ovine

The proportion of infected vectors which are able to transmit an arbovirus to a susceptible host has a significant impact on the epidemic potential of such a virus. Assessing vector competence is therefore crucial to evaluate accurately the risk posed by such a disease to any non-endemic region. The vector competence of various Culicoides species in Scotland for bluetongue virus serotype 8 (BTV-8) was assessed by a pad-feeding technique, and a high-throughput virus extraction and isolation procedure. This was coupled with a multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify members of the Culicoides Obsoletus complex to spe­cies level. These results are compared with vector competence results of further Culicoides Obsoletus in South-East England assessed by the same method. A very low level of competence for this strain was detected in all Culicoides species tested, simi­lar to that described for this strain in C. imicola originating from both Corsica and the Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute in South Africa. The implications of this are discussed in relation to future studies and also with regard to wider aspects of orbivirus trans­mission in the European Union.

Genetic diversity and distinctiveness in Scottish alpine plants

Background: Many alpine plants are rare in Scotland. Their persistence depends on their ability to withstand habitat fragmentation and loss due to changes in land use, increased grazing pressure, and climate change. Aims: We use a phylogeographic approach to address the origin and genetic diversity of Scottish populations, which is relevant for their future management and protection. Methods: We review phylogeographic studies that include Scottish populations of common and rare alpine plants, and present unpublished data for eleven more species. We use results from amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) studies to address the genetic distinctiveness of the Scottish populations and their levels of genetic diversity. Results: A positive correlation was found between relative rarity of each species in Scotland and the level of genetic diversity in Scottish populations compared with the species' total. Scottish populations of all species analysed except Saxifraga cernua belong to larger European/Eurasian genetic groups, and show little genetic distinctiveness. However, in S. cernua and one population of S. stellaris, we found a unique genetic group restricted to Scotland. Conclusions: The ancestors of Scottish populations probably shared refugia with other northern European/Eurasian populations during the last glacial period. The finding of unique genetic groups in two species may call for increased conservation effort targeting these particular species. However, we cannot exclude the possibility of such components also occurring in the other species. To prevent a reduction in overall genetic diversity, which again may reduce adaptive potential, it is important to maintain present distributions.