New Zealand Species Research Articles

Characterization of the effects of triclosan on sperm and embryos of Mytilus and Perna mussel species.

The Greenshell™ mussel (GSM), Perna canaliculus, is a culturally and commercially important species in New Zealand. Declines in spat settlement of GSM have been observed in important growing areas and the cause(s) have not been identified. One hypothesis is that chemical contaminants could be a contributing factor. The aim to this study was to investigate the effects of acute exposure on early life stages using the anti-microbial triclosan (TCS) as a benchmark toxicant and the blue mussel (BM), Mytilus galloprovincialis, as a reference species. Sperm and embryos of BM and GSM were exposed to TCS for 1h and 48h, respectively. Following exposures, a range of parameters were investigated including spermatozoa cellular characteristics via flow cytometry, fertilization success, larval mortality and size. Exposure to TCS negatively impacted functional parameters of sperm, reduced the fertilization success and larval size, and increased larval mortality in both BM and GSM with LC5048h of 94.3 and 213µg L-1, respectively. Triclosan increased sperm ROS production in both species, which could cause destabilisation of mitochondrial and other cellular membranes, resulting in reduced mitochondrial membrane potential (BM) and increased sperm size (GSM), leading to apoptosis in both species. Fertilization success of GSM was only affected at the highest TCS concentration tested (391µg L-1), but development of larvae derived from exposed sperm was affected from the lowest concentrations tested (0.5 and 5.2µg L-1) in both species. This highlights the importance of assessing the sensitivity of contaminants across developmental stages. Results of this study confirm that TCS causes oxidative stress and has membranotropic effects, and that early life stages of the endemic GSM are suitable to assess ecotoxicity of contaminants such as TCS.

Genetic diversity of Tradescantia fluminensis complex (Commelinaceae) naturalised in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa

ABSTRACT Tradescantia fluminensis Vell. is an invasive species in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. To assist biocontrol initiatives and management of the species we examine genetic variation in these countries and compare this to samples collected from its natural range in Brazil. Tradescantia fluminensis comprises two genetic groupings in New Zealand, both of which are shared with Australia and South Africa. One of these genotypes is relatively common in New Zealand and this is also shared with a Brazilian population. Populations of T. fluminensis in Australia and South Africa are genetically more variable than in New Zealand. Two other entities, T. mundula Kunth (syn. T. albiflora hort.) and T. umbraculifera Hand-Mazz. (syn. T. aff. fluminensis “Big”), new names for naturalised species in New Zealand, also comprise distinct genetic groups. These genetic data emphasise the importance of correct taxonomic identification of weed species being considered for biological control programmes. Tradescantia mundula and T. umbraculifera share a similar genome size and chromosome numbers (2n = 66, 68, 70 and 2C = 14.9 picograms), whereas T. fluminensis had lower values (2n = 56, 58; 2C = 11.7 picograms). Self-pollinations of T. fluminensis and T. umbraculifera failed to produce seed, confirming that these two taxa are self-incompatible. Tradescantia mundula is self-compatible as the majority (93%) of self-pollinations produced fruit. Tradescantia umbraculifera produced a low number of fruit and seeds per fruit when pollinated by T. mundula, but no fruit or seeds were formed when it was pollinated by T. fluminensis. Tradescantia fluminensis pollinated with T. mundula or T. umbraculifera failed to produce fruit or seeds. Self-incompatibility and failure to set seed when cross-pollinated with other species suggests the invasive T. fluminensis does not pose a threat of seedling establishment in indigenous ecosystems and vegetative spread remains the main method of reproduction and invasion.

Forecasting the genetic and economic impacts of genomic selection in perennial ryegrass

Simulation offers a way to explore questions about implementation, value and impacts of various breeding methodologies for pasture species in New Zealand (NZ). We present genetic modelling and farm system-based economic simulations demonstrating the potential of genomic selection (GS) and high-throughput phenotyping (HTP) to improve breeding outcomes in perennial ryegrass, and assess the potential value for farmers. Predicted genetic gain (∆G) from half-sibling family selection without GS ranged up to 4.9% per cycle, depending on selection pressure. Including GS for within-family selection, ∆G ranged up to 7.6% per cycle. Across 12 scenarios tested for a single cycle, increasing ∆G per cycle doubled cost-efficiency per unit gain, even though cost per cycle increased. Simulation of 10 cycles of selection within a population with and without GS showed higher levels of ∆G were maintained over multiple cycles for GS. Farm system-based economic analysis, focused on agronomic traits, indicated full commercialisation of GS and HTP technology harnessing increased ∆G in 2026 creates new value rising by 2040 to a range of $74M - $221M per annum for NZ red meat farmers, and $399M to $1,260M per annum for dairy farmers in NZ and Australia. This study indicated incorporating GS in pasture plant breeding can increase the rate and cost-efficiency of genetic improvement, with pasture performance and sector economic benefits realised through the value chain.

Future climates are predicted to alter the potential distributions of non-native conifer species in New Zealand

Non-native conifers constitute a significant threat to the ecology and biodiversity of many of New Zealand’s native ecosystems and species. From the top down, the potential distributions of non-native conifer species are governed by climate suitability, which alongside variables such as the availability of suitable habitats and a source of propagules determines whether an area of land will be susceptible to invasion by a given species.

Toxin-laced rat carcass baits for stoat elimination

Stoats are implicated in the severe decline of certain iconic endemic species in New Zealand. Stoats are notoriously difficult to control, as they are highly cryptic and often neophobic around control techniques such as traps and poison baits in tunnels. Stoats are often killed through secondary poisoning in both aerial and hand-lay operations targeting other mammalian pests. We prototype trialled a novel approach to poisoning of stoats: wild-caught ship rats that had consumed (and subsequently died from) a lethal dose of 1080 cereal baits in a captive facility.

Viromes of Freshwater Fish with Lacustrine and Diadromous Life Histories Differ in Composition.

Viruses that infect fish are understudied, yet they provide important evolutionary context to the viruses that infect terrestrial vertebrates. We surveyed gill tissue meta-transcriptomes collected from two species of native freshwater fish from Aotearoa New Zealand—Retropinna retropinna and Gobiomorphus cotidianus. A total of 64 fish were used for gill tissue meta-transcriptomic sequencing, from populations with contrasting life histories—landlocked (i.e., lacustrine) and diadromous—on the South Island and Chatham Islands. We observed that both viral richness and taxonomic diversity were significantly associated with life history and host species, with lacustrine R. retropinna characterised by higher viral alpha diversity than diadromous R. retropinna. Additionally, we observed transcripts of fish viruses from 12 vertebrate host-associated virus families, and phylogenetically placed eight novel RNA viruses and three novel DNA viruses in the Astroviridae, Paramyxoviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Rhabdoviridae, Totiviridae, Poxviridae, Alloherpesviridae, and Adintoviridae in their evolutionary contexts. These results represent an important survey of the viruses that infect two widespread native fish species in New Zealand, and provide insight useful for future fish virus surveys.

Development and Validation of a 36K SNP Array for Radiata Pine (Pinus radiata D.Don)

Radiata pine (Pinus radiata D.Don) is one of the world’s most domesticated pines and a key economic species in New Zealand. Thus, the development of genomic resources for radiata pine has been a high priority for both research and commercial breeding. Leveraging off a previously developed exome capture panel, we tested the performance of 438,744 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on a screening array (NZPRAD01) and then selected 36,285 SNPs for a final genotyping array (NZPRAD02). These SNPs aligned to 15,372 scaffolds from the Pinus taeda L. v. 1.01e assembly, and 20,039 contigs from the radiata pine transcriptome assembly. The genotyping array was tested on more than 8000 samples, including material from archival progenitors, current breeding trials, nursery material, clonal lines, and material from Australia. Our analyses indicate that the array is performing well, with sample call rates greater than 98% and a sample reproducibility of 99.9%. Genotyping in two linkage mapping families indicated that the SNPs are well distributed across the 12 linkage groups. Using genotypic data from this array, we were also able to differentiate representatives of the five recognized provenances of radiata pine, Año Nuevo, Monterey, Cambria, Cedros and Guadalupe. Furthermore, principal component analysis of genotyped trees revealed clear patterns of population structure, with the primary axis of variation driven by provenance ancestry and the secondary axis reflecting breeding activities. This represents the first commercial use of genomics in a radiata pine breeding program.

Genomic Signatures of Domestication Selection in the Australasian Snapper (Chrysophrys auratus).

Domestication of teleost fish is a recent development, and in most cases started less than 50 years ago. Shedding light on the genomic changes in key economic traits during the domestication process can provide crucial insights into the evolutionary processes involved and help inform selective breeding programmes. Here we report on the recent domestication of a native marine teleost species in New Zealand, the Australasian snapper (Chrysophrys auratus). Specifically, we use genome-wide data from a three-generation pedigree of this species to uncover genetic signatures of domestication selection for growth. Genotyping-By-Sequencing (GBS) was used to generate genome-wide SNP data from a three-generation pedigree to calculate generation-wide averages of FST between every generation pair. The level of differentiation between generations was further investigated using ADMIXTURE analysis and Principal Component Analysis (PCA). After that, genome scans using Bayescan, LFMM and XP-EHH were applied to identify SNP variants under putative selection following selection for growth. Finally, genes near candidate SNP variants were annotated to gain functional insights. Analysis showed that between generations FST values slightly increased as generational time increased. The extent of these changes was small, and both ADMIXTURE analysis and PCA were unable to form clear clusters. Genome scans revealed a number of SNP outliers, indicative of selection, of which a small number overlapped across analyses methods and populations. Genes of interest within proximity of putative selective SNPs were related to biological functions, and revealed an association with growth, immunity, neural development and behaviour, and tumour repression. Even though few genes overlapped between outlier SNP methods, gene functionalities showed greater overlap between methods. While the genetic changes observed were small in most cases, a number of outlier SNPs could be identified, of which some were found by more than one method. Multiple outlier SNPs appeared to be predominately linked to gene functionalities that modulate growth and survival. Ultimately, the results help to shed light on the genomic changes occurring during the early stages of domestication selection in teleost fish species such as snapper, and will provide useful candidates for the ongoing selective breeding in the future of this and related species.

Evaluating the efficacy of potential fungicide-adjuvant combinations for control of myrtle rust in New Zealand

Myrtle rust is a serious fungal disease caused by Austropuccinia psidii affecting a number of Myrtaceae species in New Zealand and elsewhere. Control with fungicides or biologicals provides a mechanism to reduce the build-up of inoculum in the short-term while other strategies are being developed or deployed for long-term management. This study evaluated the efficacy of fungicides for control of myrtle rust under controlled conditions and identified adjuvants that would promote spreading of fungicidal active ingredients across the leaf surface. The spread of fungicide on detached M. excelsa leaves was assessed by applying three different adjuvants in combination with seven fungicides. Subsequently, M. excelsa plants were treated with three fungicides/mixes, (azoxystrobin + epoxiconazole, triademinol or a natural tea-extract) at a single rate followed by inoculation with A. psidii urediniospores on day 0, 7, 14 or 21 days after spraying. The response to infection in M. excelsa plants based on different inoculation timings at days 0, 7 and 21 significantly differed among fungicide treatments. The fungicide azoxystrobin + epoxiconazole was the most effective with infections significantly lower on the adaxial leaf surface than abaxial, despite good surface coverage of fungicide being achieved on both leaf surfaces. There were significant differences among fungicides based on the proportion of infected leaves on M. excelsa plants. Day 21 post-spray inoculation indicated a significant interaction between inoculation time and fungicide on leaf disease ratings. However, this was not the case at either 28 or 35 days post-inoculation. This research contributes to fungicide options for myrtle rust control in New Zealand.

Endemic New Zealand aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) parasitised by native Aphidiinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), not biological control parasitoids

AbstractAlmost all known Aphidiinae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) parasitoid species in New Zealand have been introduced as biological control agents (BCAs) for introduced aphids or have self‐introduced. The New Zealand endemic aphid (Hemiptera: Aphididae) fauna consists of a small number of species that are parasitised, on occasion, by Aphidiinae that remain unidentified. A persistent concern has been that introduced BCAs are among the parasitoids attacking the rare endemic aphids. After 14 years of collection, 66 cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene sequences were obtained from emerged parasitoids, mummies or by specific PCR from parasitised New Zealand aphids. Parasitoid samples were from 13 aphid species (eight endemic, plus five introduced species feeding on native plants) at 20 locations. The Aphidiinae COI sequences comprised two new clades of native New Zealand parasitoids. One species‐rich clade appeared to represent a radiation after dispersal to New Zealand, whereas the second clade consisted only of parasitoids from a single endemic host. The patterns of aphid/parasitoid associations were strongly suggestive of host specificity towards the endemic aphids, while a subgroup of the newly discovered native Aphidiinae was found parasitising four introduced aphid species, despite the short time period these aphids are assumed to have been in New Zealand. We found no evidence for attack of endemic aphids by introduced BCAs or other introduced aphidiines. On the rare occasions that parasitism was detected in the most common endemic Aphidinae aphid, Aphis cottieri Carver, 1999, it was by a native Aphidiinae lineage, not by Aphidius ervi Haliday, 1834.

Diversified pastures at the front line of climate change in Northland: farmers experiences, new directions and wider implications for other parts of the country

The persistence of both perennial ryegrass and white clover is challenged under summer-dry conditions. Future climate change projections indicate greater incidence and severity of summer moisture stress for many regions in New Zealand, and therefore, greater pressure on our traditional pasture base. The ‘Northland Diversified Forages Project’ aimed to identify alternative pasture species that provide an advantage in terms of dry matter yield, quality and/or timing of growth within a summer-dry environment, with a particular focus on legumes. A series of mown-plot trial and paddock demonstrations were established across a range of soil types to assess the potential of a wide variety of forage species. Perennial ryegrass and white clover both failed to persist, comprising less than 25% of the sward within 3 years of establishment. Cocksfoot demonstrated potential as a more persistent alternative to perennial ryegrass. However, whilst a range of legumes were successful at increasing the proportion of legume in the sward and total yield in the first year, significant challenges were identified in maintaining functional legumes across multiple years. This raises questions around whether we currently have the right species in New Zealand to adapt to a changing climate.

About naturalization of Berberis aquifolium in the territory of Nature Reserves of the Southern Coast of the Crimea

At the present stage of development of the economies of different states, the problem of biological invasions is considered one of the top-priorities. A special place among the different areas of research of biological invasions is occupied by the study of the most aggressive and dangerous alien plants in Protected Areas, as they pose a threat to the conservation of ecosystems and their biodiversity. The paper provides information on the phytocenotic diversity of communities with Berberis aquifolium Purch in native - in North America, as well as data on the distribution and degree of naturalization of the species in Eurasia, Australia, and New Zealand. It is established that Mahonia in many regions has the status of an invasive species, it is found both in anthropogenic disturbed and in natural communities, inhabiting a wide range of ecotopes (forest parks, meadows, forests, coastal dunes, etc.). On the Southern Coast of the Crimea, communities with Berberis aquifolium Purch were identified in forest park stands, as well as in coniferous and mixed forests, which belong to the classes Erico-Pinetea, Quercetea pubescentis according to the Braun-Blanquet classification. Preliminary data on the invasion of the species in the natural communities of two Protected Areas (PAs) - "Yalta Mountain Forest" and "Cape Martyan" are presented. The species is most widespread at altitudes from 200 to 400 m above sea level in pine, oak-hornbeam-pine and oak-pine forests belonging to the class Erico-Pinetea . In the lower forest belt at an altitude of up to 200 m above sea level, it is found in the pubescent oak-hornbeam and ash-oak-dogwood communities with Juniperus excelsa , J. deltoides , and Pinus pallasianae , which are part of the class Quercetea pubescentis .

Phylogenomic analyses reveal a history of hybridisation and introgression between Sophora sect. Edwardsia (Fabaceae) species in New Zealand

ABSTRACT Past studies of Sophora sect. Edwardsia using traditional phylogenetic and population genetic markers have been unable to produce a resolved species phylogeny of this recent radiation of shrubs and trees. Here we examined the relationships within and between the New Zealand species of Sophora sect. Edwardsia using next-generation sequencing. We generated genome-wide SNP data with double-digest restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (ddRADseq). Sophora prostrata was resolved as sister to the remaining species in all analyses. Relationships between the remaining taxa exhibited a high level of conflict with many of the genetic clusters reflecting geography rather than species boundaries. This result contrasts with a previous study, which was able to differentiate most species using genotype data from nine microsatellite loci. Overall our ddRADseq results indicate a high level of interspecific hybridisation and introgression within the group, which blurs the taxonomic boundaries throughout the distributional ranges of most species. Hybridisation and introgression among regional metapopulations comprising closely related species may increase the adaptive potential to respond to changing local conditions, and at the same time selection acts to maintain their genetic identity in the face of ongoing gene flow.

Taxonomy with an absence of evidence results in unnecessary nomenclatural change: the case of Tetragonia trigyna Banks & Sol. ex Hook.f. (Aizoaceae) from New Zealand

ABSTRACT Tetragonia trigyna Banks & Sol. ex Hook.f. was the accepted name for a well-known coastal species in New Zealand from when it was formally named by J. D. Hooker in 1864 until the 1990s. In 1994, a Flora of Australia volume covering Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands reduced T. trigyna to synonymy of the Australian T. implexicoma (Miq.) Hook.f.. This was followed in 1999 by the first acceptance of T. implexicoma in New Zealand botanical literature when the name was used in a checklist of plant species from Aorangi Island, Poor Knights Islands. In a departure from what is generally considered accepted taxonomic practice, no empirical evidence or discussion of characters was provided in support of either decision. Subsequently, T. implexicoma has become widely used in New Zealand. The taxonomic study of T. implexicoma and T. trigyna reported here provides empirical data from herbarium specimens and cultivated plants, and concludes both species should be recognised. Tetragonia trigyna differs from T. implexicoma by its broader leaves, shorter pedicels, shorter tepals, and fewer and shorter stamens. Images in the citizen science iNaturalist platform confirm the diagnostic characters and distribution, and recently published nrDNA ITS sequence data distinguish both species. Accordingly, T. trigyna is reinstated with a distribution of New Zealand (including Chatham, Kermadec and Three Kings islands), Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island, and T. implexicoma is considered restricted to continental Australia and Tasmania.

Molecular detection and distribution of the genera Amphidoma and Azadinium (Amphidomataceae, Dinophyceae) in the coastal waters of Aotearoa/New Zealand

ABSTRACT Molecular-based approaches for harmful algal bloom species, which can be difficult to identify by light microscopy, are important tools for detecting and predicting the blooms. In this study, 84 samples from Aotearoa/New Zealand coastal waters that contained Azadinium-like cells were analysed using an Amphidomataceae real-time PCR assay. Nineteen samples were positive, and 24 Azadinium-like clonal isolates were established from these samples. Subsequently, only five isolates from one sampling point were positive using the real-time PCR assay. Four of the five isolates were genetically identified as Amphidoma languida and one as Azadinium dalianense. The field samples were analysed retrospectively using the species-specific real-time PCR assays; Am. languida was detected from the temperate areas, while Az. poporum and Az. spinosum were detected at one site. Two representative strains of each species were analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), including Am. languida, which is known as toxic in the previous studies, but neither produced the currently monitored azaspiracids (AZAs). These two newly recorded species for New Zealand are important findings. The results highlight the need for more information on the spatio-temporal variations of potentially toxic Amphidomataceae species and the risk of AZAs in New Zealand coastal waters.

Dispersal potential rather than risk assessment scores predict the spread rate of non‐native pines across New Zealand

Abstract Pine (genus Pinus) species are planted extensively for forestry purposes in areas where they are non‐native, with the result that biological invasions by many of these species are of considerable concern in many regions. Owing to the economic importance of these species, management approaches must focus on reducing the risk that they will spread from plantings, which requires access to accurate and rigorous risk analysis protocols. However, while a variety of tools are available that accurately predict which species are likely to naturalise, their performance in forecasting the subsequent rates of spread of species once established remain unproven. We compared 10 measures of risk that could be used to forecast the likelihood of pine spread, including established risk assessment tools as well as dispersal‐related plant traits: expert assessment of spreading vigour, the Z‐score, the Australian weed risk assessment protocol (WRA), seed terminal velocity, tree height, modelled dispersal potential, and planting effort. We examined the extent to which these measures were consistent in their estimate of risk and assessed their ability to accurately predict the spread rates of 10 non‐native naturalised pine species within New Zealand. Of the measures of risk assessed here, only the models of dispersal potential were able to significantly predict the species' spread rates within New Zealand. In addition, seed terminal velocity was significantly correlated with expert assessment of the species spreading vigour, indicating these two measures capture similar aspects of risk. Modelled long‐distance dispersal from forests had the greatest explanatory power for the species spread rates in New Zealand. Synthesis and applications. Common weed risk assessment tools and expert knowledge were unable to predict the spread rates of non‐native naturalised pine species in New Zealand, and should not be used to provide an index of spread risk. Instead, we recommend a move towards the use of dispersal models when assessing the spread risk of these species, even at national scales. Current practices relying on expert assessment are likely to underestimate the spread rate of species currently considered ‘low risk’, suggesting that these tools may be inadequate for predicting spread of these species.

Comparing the performance of supervised classification methods on a multispecies fishery of post-larval galaxiids

ABSTRACT Galaxiid post-larvae constitute five of the six species in New Zealand’s iconic whitebait fishery. Distinguishing the five species needs to occur at a younger age than is convenient for easy identification. Traditional identification uses subjective characteristics such as colouration of fresh specimens and fin position, but supervised classification methods could be more accurate and less labour-intensive. We compared the accuracy of six methods (multinomial logistic regression, linear discriminant analysis, quadratic discriminant analysis, naive Bayes, decision tree, and random forest) using total length, wet weight, body depth, and date, latitude and longitude of capture as predictive variables. Four of the galaxiid species were represented in 17,546 observations, but the other species was too rare to analyse. The best method, determined using 10-fold cross-validation classification accuracy (95.2% overall), was random forest across all species. The most difficult species to classify correctly (giant kōkopu) was the rarest species included in data with 66.1% accuracy at best. In addition to examining overall accuracy, we show how use of a cost function can improve classification performance with respect to rare species. This research could improve the efficiency of monitoring the composition of the whitebait fishery, and thus management of this occasionally overfished group of fish.

Reproductive isolation between two cryptic sponge species in New Zealand: high levels of connectivity and clonality shape Tethya species boundaries

Although commonly reported among widespread marine taxa, hybridization has only been recorded for one species of marine sponge to date. Sponges have evolved an array of sexual and asexual reproductive strategies, but it remains unclear if the lack of reported hybrids in this phylum is due to their reproductive diversity (which promotes reproductive isolation) or instead due to a lack of data. In this study, we aimed to determine whether hybridization occurs between two cryptic species of Tethya burtoni (T. burtoni sp. A and T. burtoni sp. B) that live sympatrically in central New Zealand. We also examined how both small-scale population structure (for five locations) and asexual reproduction contributed to instances (or lack thereof) of hybridization for these sponges. Using 11 microsatellite markers, we found no evidence of hybridization between species. Both species exhibited differences in distribution, where one species was present at all five locations, but the other was only detected at three locations. For these three locations (all within 20 km of each other), both species exhibited high levels of gene flow. Asexual buds did not appear to disperse far, and groups of clonal individuals were found within areas of < 900 cm2. Asexual reproduction, therefore, did not play an obvious role in connectivity between populations, but instead appeared to be important for population maintenance. While specific mechanisms for reproductive isolation, such as gamete recognition, between both T. burtoni species remain unknown, we suggest that such mechanisms likely exist due to the strong differentiation found between both species (FST = 0.191, P < 0.0001). Further, the observed high levels of both gene flow and asexual reproduction may also act to reduce the potential for hybridization by maintaining genetic diversity and increasing the chance of mating with a conspecific individual.

Effects of changes in bird community composition and species abundance on plant reproduction, through pollination and seed dispersal

The consequences of global bird declines on ecosystem function are gaining increasing attention. Here we consider the effects of changes in bird community composition and species abundance on reproduction for two endemic plant species in New Zealand. Birds service a relatively high proportion of the New Zealand flora as both pollinators and seed dispersers, and bird losses have been extensive during the 700 years since human colonization. We compare fruit set and seed removal for plants in reserves free of introduced predators, where seven endemic flower and fruit visiting bird species were present and relatively abundant, with plants outside these reserves where endemic bird species were absent or at lower abundance. The study plants, Dysoxylum spectabile and Pittosporum crassifolium, have both flowers and fruit visited by birds. Both species are also dioecious (a characteristic that has not been commonly associated with bird‐pollinated plants) and despite having mixed pollination systems, bird visits are essential for successful seed production. Outside introduced predator‐free reserves, the winter‐flowering D. spectabile was still visited by endemic pollinators and maintained pollination levels, despite a 59% decrease in endemic bird abundance. However, reduced endemic bird abundance was associated with a halving of pollination levels in P. crassifolium, which flowers in spring, as do other native and introduced flowering plants attractive to birds. The effect of altered bird species composition and abundance on seed dispersal was associated with a 74% reduction in seed dispersal for P. crassifolium. Additionally, undispersed seeds of P. crassifolium had lower germination, and higher pre‐dispersal seed predation, compared with dispersed seeds. We stress three important aspects of these results: (1) for some plant species, the same bird species perform both pollination and seed dispersal, (2) dispersal reduces pre‐dispersal seed predation, so that dispersal failure secondarily increases losses to seed predators, and (3) the effects of mutualism loss are not even across all species. Our results highlight that introduced species do not adequately replace endemic mutualists, which may be a particular problem for plant species with both bird‐visited flowers and fruit.

Two red macroalgae newly introduced into New Zealand: Pachymeniopsis lanceolata (K. Okamura) Y. Yamada ex S. Kawabata and Fushitsunagia catenata Filloramo et G. W. Saunders

Abstract Introductions of macroalgae are becoming more common with increased surveillance and the use of molecular tools to unequivocally identify invaders. We here report two non-indigenous macroalgal species newly confirmed to be present in New Zealand. Pachymeniopsis lanceolata is an irregularly divided foliose blade, first detected in Lyttleton Harbour/Whakaraupō, South Island but here also reported from the North Island. It has known introductions from its native range in Pacific Asia to the Mediterranean, Atlantic and the eastern Pacific. The introduced cox3 haplotype was also found in New Zealand, suggesting a secondary introduction from a previous introduced area, but we also found a novel haplotype in the North Island suggesting a case of multiple introductions. Fushitsunagia catenata, a recent segregate from Lomentaria, was also first detected in Whakaraupō and was initially identified as a species of Champia. RbcL data shows that it belongs to F. catenata. This species is also of Asian origin and has been known to have been introduced to Spain, Mexico, and Australia. We provide morphological and reproductive descriptions of the species in New Zealand. Continued surveillance, and follow up monitoring, are needed to track the expansion and effects of these macroalgae on native biotas.