Conservation Plans For Species Research Articles

Commonness as a reliable surrogacy strategy for the conservation planning of rare tree species in the subtropical Atlantic Forest

Commonness as a reliable surrogacy strategy for the conservation planning of rare tree species in the subtropical Atlantic Forest

Predicting future climate change impacts on the potential distribution of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra): an endangered arboreal primate.

Climate change is one of the main factors affecting biodiversity worldwide at an alarming rate. In addition to increases in global extreme weather events, melting of polar ice caps, and subsequent sea level rise, climate change might shift the geographic distribution of species. In recent years, interest in understanding the effects of climate change on species distribution has increased, including species which depend greatly on forest cover for survival, such as strictly arboreal primates. Here, we generate a series of species distribution models (SDMs) to evaluate future projections under different climate change scenarios on the distribution of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra), an endemic endangered primate species. Using SDMs, we assessed current and future projections of their potential distribution for three Social Economic Paths (SSPs) for the years 2030, 2050, 2070, and 2090. Specifically, we found that precipitation seasonality (BIO15, 30.8%), isothermality (BIO3, 25.4%), and mean diurnal range (BIO2, 19.7.%) are the main factors affecting A. pigra distribution. The future climate change models suggested a decrease in the potential distribution of A. pigra by projected scenarios (from - 1.23 to - 12.66%). The highly suitable area was the most affected above all in the more pessimist scenario most likely related to habitat fragmentation. Our study provides new insights into the potential future distribution and suitable habitats of Alouatta pigra. Such information could be used by local communities, governments, and non-governmental organizations for conservation planning of this primate species.

A rapid assessment method to monitor the health status of habitat‐forming species in coastal benthic ecosystems

Abstract Marine habitat‐forming (MHF) species in the Mediterranean are among the most threatened coastal species by human activities. In recent decades, different stressors (e.g., warming‐induced marine heatwaves and algal blooms) have caused mass mortality events in these key species. Overall, a common method to assess their health status at the Mediterranean Sea scale is lacking. To fill this gap, the aim of this work is to present and validate a cost‐effective method, the Mortality Rapid Assessment Method, that is able to assess the health status of key MHF species, even through Citizen Science. The Mortality Rapid Assessment Method is based on determining the impact of mortality on MHF species derived from the metric percentage of affected colonies or individuals. To validate the ability of the proposed method to assess the health status, it was compared to a more commonly used but time‐consuming and expert‐required metric based on the injured surface percentage of the colonies or individuals. For the validation, one of the most extensive (>47,500 colonies) demographic datasets of the octocoral Paramuricea clavata was used to conduct a comprehensive metric comparison. The results showed a highly significant correlation between metrics from both methods (ρ = 0.86), confirming that the percentage of affected colonies provides a reliable assessment of the health status of gorgonian populations over broad spatial and temporal scales. Bearing in mind that this metric can be applied to different MHF species, such as sponges, bryozoans and calcareous algae, and by non‐scientific personnel (managers and trained volunteers), its implementation can contribute to inform and enhance the effectiveness of the conservation and management plans for key MHF species at the scale of the Mediterranean Sea.

GENETIC DISTANCE REVEALS SYNONYMY AND NEW FISH SPECIES IN BALIKESİR STREAMS, TÜRKİYE

The Mediterranean-Aegean region play a significant role in the context of conserving biodiversity. The protection of endemic and local species becomes attainable only with a thorough understanding of their biology. Specifically, aquatic species dwelling in inland waters may be more vulnerable due to the irregular composition of their habitats, characterized by natural barriers. It becomes imperative to initiate the conservation process by identifying the fauna and flora of ecosystems, thereby facilitating the development of comprehensive conservation plans. In this context, the primary objective of the present study is to identify freshwater fish species inhabiting Madra and Havran Streams in Balıkesir, Türkiye using the DNA barcoding method. The procedure involves DNA isolation through the Chelex protocol, followed by the amplification of the mitochondrial CO1 region using various primer combinations. The results obtained from the gene sequences of 29 individuals in total provide valuable information on species diversity, genetic relationships, and variations. This research emphasizes the importance of DNA barcoding as a valuable tool for species identification, genetic exploration, and conservation plans. The acquired outcomes establish a foundation for the effective management of aquatic biodiversity, particularly within these vulnerable ecosystems.

The role of connectivity in conservation planning for species with obligatory interactions: Prospects for future climate scenarios

AbstractClimate change may lead to range shifts, and barriers to such displacements may result in extirpations from previously suitable habitats. This may be particularly important in freshwater ecosystems that are highly fragmented by anthropogenic obstacles, such as dams and other smaller in‐stream barriers. Conservation planning in freshwaters should consider the dynamic effects of climate change and the ability of species to cope with it. In this study, we developed a framework for incorporating climate‐driven dispersal barriers into conservation planning taking into account the medium and long‐term impacts of climate change and species with obligatory interactions. Given that freshwater mussels (Bivalvia: Unionida) are a group of highly threatened organisms dependent on fish hosts to complete their larval development and dispersal, we used Marxan to prioritize areas for their joint conservation in the Iberian Peninsula as a case study. We tested two connectivity scenarios between current and future habitats, (i) unlimited dispersal capacity and (ii) dispersal constrained by artificial barriers, and also identified priority translocation areas for species that were unable to disperse. Accounting for the effects of climate change on species distributions allowed the identification of long‐term conservation areas, but disregarding artificial barriers to dispersal may lead to unrealistic solutions. Integrating the location of barriers allowed the identification of priority areas that are more likely to be colonized in the future following climatic shifts, although this resulted in an additional loss of six to eight features (~5%–7%) compared to solutions without dispersal constraints. Between 173 and 357 artificial barriers (~1.6%–3.3%) will potentially block species dispersal to irreplaceable planning units. Where removal of artificial barriers is unfeasible, conservation translocations may additionally cover up to eight additional features that do not meet conservation targets due to dispersal constraints. This study highlights the challenge of identifying protected areas to safeguard biodiversity under climate change.

Declining but not (yet) threatened: a challenge for avian conservation in Australia

ABSTRACT Threatened species receive much attention in conservation science and practice. Species currently declining, but not yet listed as threatened, also deserve consideration to reduce their risk of sliding towards extinction and to maintain their functional roles in ecosystems. Information on declining bird species in Australia is available from four main sources: national databases, syntheses of historical change, regional monitoring programmes and summaries for guilds of species. Many species show evidence of decline; declines of species are occurring nation-wide, and they are ongoing. Trends for individual species vary geographically; they may be declining in part of their range but stable elsewhere. Common trajectories of population decline include: (a) a downward linear trend; (b) a marked downturn, sustained at a lower level; and (c) fluctuations through time associated with episodic events (e.g. drought) and incomplete recovery. Ongoing declines affect ecosystems through reduced species richness, homogenisation of bird communities, changes to interspecific interactions and ecosystem services, and contributing to extinction debt. Improving the conservation outlook for declining species requires systematic monitoring to know where, when and how much decline is occurring, together with protection of critical habitats and source populations, ambitious programmes of restoration, and identification and effective control of threats. Responding to declining species offers opportunities for community engagement, monitoring and action at a local and regional level. New ways are needed to incorporate such species in conservation planning and environmental regulation at a regional scale, to give them greater visibility and avoid local declines accumulating until taxa become nationally threatened.

Population structure and connectivity among coastal and freshwater Kelp Gull (Larus dominicanus) populations from Patagonia.

The genetic identification of evolutionary significant units and information on their connectivity can be used to design effective management and conservation plans for species of concern. Despite having high dispersal capacity, several seabird species show population structure due to both abiotic and biotic barriers to gene flow. The Kelp Gull is the most abundant species of gull in the southern hemisphere. In Argentina it reproduces in both marine and freshwater environments, with more than 100,000 breeding pairs following a metapopulation dynamic across 140 colonies in the Atlantic coast of Patagonia. However, little is known about the demography and connectivity of inland populations. We aim to provide information on the connectivity of the largest freshwater colonies (those from Nahuel Huapi Lake) with the closest Pacific and Atlantic populations to evaluate if these freshwater colonies are receiving immigrants from the larger coastal populations. We sampled three geographic regions (Nahuel Huapi Lake and the Atlantic and Pacific coasts) and employed a reduced-representation genomic approach to genotype individuals for single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Using clustering and phylogenetic analyses we found three genetic groups, each corresponding to one of our sampled regions. Individuals from marine environments are more closely related to each other than to those from Nahuel Huapi Lake, indicating that the latter population constitutes the first freshwater Kelp Gull colony to be identified as an evolutionary significant unit in Patagonia.

Movement pathways and habitat use of blue sharks (Prionace glauca) in the Western Mediterranean Sea: Distribution in relation to environmental factors, reproductive biology, and conservation issues

The blue shark (Prionace glauca), a highly migratory and wide-ranging shark, has been classified as Critically Endangered in the Mediterranean Sea by the International Union for Conservation of Nature since 2016 due to overfishing. Surprisingly, basic information on its biology and ecology, essential for its conservation, remains unknown, and its regional stock has not been assessed. A multi-year large-scale telemetry tagging programme was implemented to fill these gaps. A total of 39 blue sharks were equipped with satellite tags in three areas of the Western Mediterranean, and their movements and home ranges were examined by sex and size class. Their distributions and habitat preferences across seasons were identified using satellite-based environmental data. Tagged sharks were capable of long-range movement between distant regions, but they did not move neither towards the Eastern Mediterranean basins nor the North Atlantic. We identified the Gulf of Lions as the mating, parturition and nursery grounds. We demonstrated that sharks can use the general geostrophic current system for large movements. Our results support the current stock boundary in the Mediterranean based on international conventional tagging programmes and genetic studies, but the absence of connectivity between the two Mediterranean basins and the North Atlantic basin suggests that they have distinct stocks. Our findings provide critical input for developing effective conservation and management plans for this cosmopolitan species. For the first time in the Mediterranean, this study provides insights into the movement patterns of blue sharks and their habitat preferences.

Social media data from two iconic Neotropical big cats: can this translate to action?

IntroductionThere has been a gradual increase in studies of social media data usage in biodiversity conservation. Social media data is an underused source of information with the potential to maximize the outcomes of established conservation measures. In this study, we assessed how structured social media data can provide insight into species conservation through a species conservation plan, based on predefined actions. MethodsWe established a framework centered on a set of steps that go from defining social media platforms and species of interest to applying general analysis of data based on data dimensions—three W’s framework (What, When, Who) and the public engagement that posts received. The final and most important step in our proposed framework is to assess the overlap between social media data outcomes and measures established in conservation plans. In our study, we used the Brazilian National Action Plan (BNAP) for big cats as our model. We extracted posts and metrics about jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) from two social media platforms, Facebook and Twitter. ResultsWe obtained 159 posts for both jaguars and pumas on Facebook (manually) and 23,869 posts for the jaguar and 14,675 posts for the puma on Twitter (through an application user interface). Data were categorized for content and users (only Facebook data) based on analysis of the content obtained and similarities found between posts. We used descriptive statistics for analyzing the metrics extracted for each data dimension (what, when, who, and engagement). We also used algorithms to predict categories in the Twitter database. Our most important findings were based on the development of a matrix summarizing the overlapping actions and dimensions of the data. Our findings revealed that the most prominent category of information for jaguars on Facebook was the sighting of wildlife outside protected areas, while for pumas, it was the trespassing of property by wildlife. From the Twitter dataset, we observed that the most prominent category of information for jaguars was: the sighting of wildlife outside protected areas, while for pumas, it was wildlife depredation by direct or indirect means. We found temporal trends that highlight the importance of categories in understanding information peaks on Facebook and Twitter. DiscussionWhen we analyze online engagement, we see a predominance of positive reactions on Facebook, and on Twitter, we see a balanced reaction between positive and negative. We identified 10 of 41 actions in the BNAP that might benefit from social media data. Most of the actions that could benefit from our dataset were linked to human–wildlife conflicts and threats, such as wildlife–vehicle collisions. Communication and educational actions could benefit from all dimensions of the data. Our results highlight the variety of information on social media to inform conservation programs and their application to conservation actions. We believe that studies on the success of applying data to conservation measures are the next step in this process and could benefit from input from decision-makers.

Potential Range Map Dataset of Indian Birds

Conservation management heavily relies on accurate species distribution data. However, distributional information for most species is limited to distributional range maps, which could not have enough resolution to take conservation action and know current distribution status. In many cases, distribution maps are difficult to access in proper data formats for analysis and conservation planning of species. In this study, we addressed this issue by developing Species Distribution Models (SDMs) that integrate species presence data from various citizen science initiatives. This allowed us to systematically construct current distribution maps for 1091 bird species across India. To create these SDMs, we used MaxEnt 3.4.4 (Maximum Entropy) as the base for species distribution modelling and combined it with multiple citizen science datasets containing information on species occurrence and 29 environmental variables. Using this method, we were able to estimate species distribution maps at both a national scale and a high spatial resolution of 1 km2. Thus, the results of our study provide species current species distribution maps for 968 bird species found in India. These maps significantly improve our knowledge of the geographic distribution of about 75% of India’s bird species and are essential for addressing spatial knowledge gaps for conservation issues. Additionally, by superimposing the distribution maps of different species, we can locate hotspots for bird diversity and align conservation action.

Complementary Analysis and Implementation Plan for Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives in Finland.

Crop wild relatives (CWR) are valuable wild plant species that can be used as genetic resources providing adaptive traits to crop plants and therefore they play an important role in future food security. This paper describes in situ and ex situ conservation planning of CWR species in Finland and includes the following parts: (a) drafting of the national CWR priority list, (b) undertaking the in situ conservation gap analysis and (c) identifying ex situ conservation gaps and multi-species collecting sites for the CWR in Finland. As a result of the study, essential information was acquired, which will enhance future planning of active science-based practical conservation of CWR in Finland. Based on the new data and earlier work, a number of conservation recommendations are presented. This national work has been carried out in connection with the larger Nordic regional CWR co-operation.

Connectivity-based approach to guide conservation and restoration of seagrass Posidonia oceanica in the NW Mediterranean

Marine population connectivity involves organism movement and interactions in oceanic and coastal settings. It is essential for biodiversity by aiding genetic diversity, species distribution, and recovery from disturbances. It guides resource management strategies like fisheries and conservation planning, ensuring marine ecosystem sustainability. Seagrass meadows play a pivotal role within coastal ecosystems, contributing to essential ecological, physical, and economic functions. Despite the presence of protective policies, a continuous decline of seagrass meadows has been observed in recent years due to the impact of human activities and climate change. In the Balearic Islands of the Mediterranean Sea, these pressures are further intensified by tourism, underlining the pressing requirement to prioritize areas for protection and restoration while considering the connectivity between habitat patches. In this study, the dispersal of Posidonia oceanica, the most widespread seagrass species in the Mediterranean Sea, from semi-enclosed bays and nearshore locations within the Balearic Islands archipelago, is investigated using a high-resolution hydrodynamic model and an individual-based model. The simulations were subjected to analysis through a graph-theoretic approach, revealing significant variations in dispersal probabilities across different years. Notably, Alcudia Bay emerged as a prominent sink, while critical links were identified between Menorca and Mallorca, as well as between Mallorca and Ibiza. This study underscores the value of dispersal modelling and network analysis in conservation planning for foundational species, particularly within a regional, integrated framework of conservation management.

Assessment of recovery potential for the American horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus): An application of the IUCN green status process

Abstract According to an International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List assessment (RLA), the American horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus), an iconic coastal species, is at risk of extirpation in some regions within its range where small and vulnerable populations occur. However, the RLA does not consider future status beyond viability and does not attempt to identify the conservation necessary to effectively mitigate threats and recover the species to full ecological functionality. To aid in conservation planning for vulnerable species, the IUCN developed the Green Status of Species assessment (GSA) process to complement the RLA. This paper describes the application of the GSA process to assess the recovery potential of the American horseshoe crab. First, specific Limulus populations within spatial units for conservation were delineated, and their statuses were defined based on viability and ecological functionality. Then conservation actions were identified that would promote recovery and affect their near‐ and long‐term population status under different conservation scenarios. Horseshoe crab conservation has relied on, and will continue to depend on, effective harvest regulation. However, as currently conceived, conservation is not expected to mitigate habitat loss at the scale required to restore range‐wide ecological functionality, primarily because habitat loss is widespread and affected by climate change. Thus, the GSA results, while indicating that there is potential for near‐term recovery gains, reveal that long‐term recovery is in doubt owing to expected loss of habitat. To conserve critical habitats for spawning and early life stages and achieve ecological functionality, it is imperative to identify and develop conservation plans at appropriate spatial scales. Unfortunately, such plans do not currently exist and need to be established. The GSA Green Score can then serve as a metric for monitoring recovery and gauging the effectiveness of conservation implementation.

Freshwater fishes of the Philippines: a provisional checklist.

An updated checklist of freshwater fishes occurring in the Philippines is presented, with notes on their distribution and conservation status. Information was systematically and comprehensively reviewed, and compiled from current and historical sources including published literature, institutional reports, museum records, and online databases. Results indicate a total of 374 fish species within 29 orders and 78 families to occur in the country. Two hundred and twenty-five (60.16%) species are native, of which 85 (22.73%) are endemic; and an additional 64 (17.11%) are non-native. Gobiiformes is the most diverse order (114 species, 5 families), followed by Cypriniformes (54 species, 4 families) and Perciformes (28 species, 13 families). The most speciose family is Gobiidae (89 species), which represents 23.80% of the total fish diversity. Conservation status based on the IUCN Red List indicates that 57 (15.24%) fish species are assessed as "Data Deficient", 188 (50.27%) are "Least Concern", nine (2.41%) are "Near Threatened", 22 (5.88%) are "Vulnerable", 20 (5.35%) are "Endangered", 10 (2.67%) are "Critically Endangered", 15 (4.01%) are "Extinct", and the conservation status of a further 53 (14.17%) have not been assessed (Not Evaluated). The relatively high number of 'Data Deficient' species emphasizes the lack of information on the taxonomy, distribution, life history and population status of many species in the archipelago. Detailed studies on various aspects of the biology and threats is highly recommended to advance the scientific understanding of, and develop conservation plans for the freshwater fish species of Philippines.

Field validation as a tool for mitigating uncertainty in species distribution modeling for conservation planning

AbstractDespite the success of species distribution models (SDMs) in rare species conservation planning, inherent uncertainty in predictions can facilitate misuse or misapplication. Field validation is important as model predictions can vary greatly due to low species prevalence or spatial bias; traits frequently encountered in rare species data. This study outlines an effective SDM approach to map the potential distribution of a Florida endemic plant species, Macbridea alba, which is transferable to other rare species that: (1) utilize presence data to create species distribution maps, (2) conduct field validation to gather independent data, (3) and use independent data for model evaluation and improvement. Independent data was used to assess each model's ability to predict the occurrence of M. alba and identify habitat for conservation and reintroduction efforts. Our study documents that for low prevalence species, models can produce significant variation in optimized threshold and evaluation metrics, which impact outcomes when converting continuous predictions to binary predictions, a common practice in model application. Our species distribution models were useful in finding new populations of M. alba. Field validation is vital to improving model performance, threshold selection, and evaluating model design and should be carefully considered when suggesting model use and application.

High focus on threatened species and habitats may undermine biodiversity conservation: Evidence from the northern Baltic Sea

AbstractConservation policies and environmental impact assessments commonly target threatened species and habitats. Nevertheless, macroecological research provides reasons why also common species should be considered. We investigate the consequences of focussing solely on legally protected species and habitats in a spatial conservation planning context using a comprehensive, benthic marine data set from the northern Baltic Sea. Using spatial prioritization and surrogacy analysis, we show that the common approach in conservation planning, where legally listed threatened species and habitats are the focus of conservation efforts, could lead to poor outcomes for common species (and therefore biodiversity as a whole), allowing them to decline in the future. If conservation efforts were aimed solely at threatened species, common species would experience a loss of 62% coverage. In contrast, if conservation plans were based only on common species, threatened species would suffer a loss of 1%. Threatened species are rare and their ecological niches distinct, making them poor surrogates for biodiversity. The best results are achieved by unified planning for all species and habitats. The minimal step towards acknowledging common species in conservation planning would be the inclusion of the richness of common species, complemented by information on indicator species or species of high importance for ecosystem functioning. The trade‐off between planning for rare and common species should be evaluated, to minimize losses to biodiversity.

Characterizing long‐term population conditions of the elusive red tree vole with dynamic individual‐based modeling

AbstractOld growth forests are declining globally, threatening dependent wildlife. Many arboreal old‐growth obligates, such as the threatened red tree vole, are difficult to monitor for changes in habitat occupancy, and abundance. Yet, conservation planning relies on this information to prevent population declines. We integrated a range of species, habitat, and landscape change information to develop a dynamic habitat‐population model. The spatial individual‐based model simulated dynamic patterns of occupancy that responded to annual habitat maps, describing 36 years of observed change. We simulated population dynamics and local movement to characterize changes in occupancy and abundance, and the capacity of remaining habitat to support red tree voles. Red tree vole redistribution patterns strongly corresponded to wildfire footprints and timber extraction locations. Population strongholds are likely to exist in clumped pockets of old‐growth forest that were unaffected by wildfire and in protected old forest reserves. However, the exact number and locations of local clusters remain uncertain. Simulated population losses occurred at different paces in different places, underscoring the need for recurring evaluation of population changes with field occupancy surveys and modeled evaluations that can anticipate potential connectivity and extirpation thresholds. This modeling approach was effective at leveraging existing information for a data‐light species to assess how historical changes to the quantity, quality, and configuration of habitat likely influenced the potential landscape capacity, species abundance, and distribution. Dynamic individual‐based modeling can benefit conservation planning for red tree vole and other reclusive forest species by providing biologically nuanced assessments of abundance and distribution. Such models can also project the long‐term benefits and impacts of spatially explicit land management plans.

Assessment of the genetic diversity of Chinese freshwater mussels and refuge areas in the Yangtze River floodplain

Abstract Freshwater mussels are one of the most diverse and endangered faunas worldwide. Owing to the continuing global biodiversity loss, it is essential to identify and protect populations that are not severely affected by human disturbances and ensure that natural genetic diversity is not inevitably lost. The generation of baseline genetic diversity data will help guide species conservation and restoration plans in the Yangtze River Basin where freshwater mussels are facing multiple threats and where strong declines have been observed. The genetic diversity of freshwater mussels was assessed using 818 mtDNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI), 565 28S rRNA and 509 COI + 28S datasets, and refuge areas in the Yangtze River floodplain were predicted using a Maxent habitat suitability model. The results showed that the genetic diversity of Aculamprotula spp., Sinosolenaia carinata, Cuneopsis rufescens, Lamprotula cornuumlunae, Lanceolaria lanceolata, Ptychorhynchus pfisteri, Schistodesmus spp. and Sinohyriopsis cumingii was lower than that of other freshwater mussels, which indicated that the conservation status of these species should be prioritized. The habitat suitability modelling showed that Poyang Lake and Dongting Lake basins (lakes and tributary rivers connected to the Yangtze River mainstem) present the most suitable habitats for freshwater mussels, indicating that lateral hydrological connectivity may be the most important factor in maintaining the genetic diversity of Chinese freshwater mussels. Consequently, Poyang Lake and Dongting Lake basins should be established as protected areas. This study provides valuable information for the conservation and management of freshwater mussel biodiversity in the Yangtze River basin, which will not only help conserve this vulnerable group but will also provide wider benefits to freshwater ecosystems.

Sexual dimorphism and reproductive biology of Cephalocassis borneensis (Siluriformes: Ariidae), a paternal mouth-brooding fish in the Mekong River.

Information on the reproductive biology of fish species is essential for fisheries management, conservation and culture potential assessment. Therefore, this study aimed to understand the sex-based morphological differences and reproductive characteristics of Cephalocassis borneensis, an ariid species with a rapid decline of wild populations. Fish samples were collected monthly from local fishermen (n = 1092) in the Vietnamese Mekong River over a year. Morphological analyses revealed that sexual dimorphism was observed in mature, but not immature, fish. The length at first maturity (Lm ) was smaller for males (11.5 cm) than for females (12.5 cm). Mature males had larger head length and pre-pectoral distance than mature females, increasing the space for oral incubation of fertilized eggs and larvae in males. Conversely, females were larger in three head parameters (head angle, head width and head depth) and three abdomen parameters (body deep, ventral fin length and distance between pectoral and ventral fin) involved in ovary development. Paternal mouth-brooding behaviour is an important reproductive strategy in C. borneensis to increase offspring survival. Monthly variations in gonado-somatic index and condition factor (K) and the presence of maturation stages indicated that C. borneensis spawns year-round, mainly in the rainy season from June to October. This species' fecundity was relatively low, from 10 to 31 eggs per female of quite large sizes (about 7.30 ± 0.68 mm in diameter). Besides, non-functional oocytes (hyaline eggs) of smaller size (<3 mm) were found in the females' ovaries. Low fecundity with large eggs and paternal care indicated that the species is an equilibrium strategist. These characteristics are critical in developing ariid species conservation plans, such as setting the time and mesh-size for fishing, and domestication programmes in artificial conditions.

A review on QST–FST comparisons of seed plants: Insights for conservation

Increased access to genome-wide data provides new opportunities for plant conservation. However, information on neutral genetic diversity in a small number of marker loci can still be valuable because genomic data are not available to most rare plant species. In the hope of bridging the gap between conservation science and practice, we outline how conservation practitioners can more efficiently employ population genetic information in plant conservation. We first review the current knowledge about neutral genetic variation (NGV) and adaptive genetic variation (AGV) in seed plants, regarding both within-population and among-population components. We then introduce the estimates of among-population genetic differentiation in quantitative traits (Q ST) and neutral markers (F ST) to plant biology and summarize conservation applications derived from Q ST-F ST comparisons, particularly on how to capture most AGV and NGV on both in-situ and ex-situ programs. Based on a review of published studies, we found that, on average, two and four populations would be needed for woody perennials (n=18) to capture 99% of NGV and AGV, respectively, whereas four populations would be needed in case of herbaceous perennials (n=14). On average, Q ST is about 3.6, 1.5, and 1.1 times greater than F ST in woody plants, annuals, and herbaceous perennials, respectively. Hence, conservation and management policies or suggestions based solely on inference on F ST could be misleading, particularly in woody species. To maximize the preservation of the maximum levels of both AGV and NGV, we suggest using maximum Q ST rather than average Q ST. We recommend conservation managers and practitioners consider this when formulating further conservation and restoration plans for plant species, particularly woody species.