Specialized Farms Research Articles

A Promising Niche: Current State of Knowledge on the Agroecological Contribution of Alternative Livestock Farming Practices

Agroecology is increasingly used to study the evolution of farms and food systems, in which livestock plays a significant part. While large-scale specialized livestock farms are sometimes criticized for their contribution to climate change and nutrient cycle disruption, interest in alternative practices such as raising multiple species, integrating crop and livestock, relying on pasture, and marketing through short supply chains is growing. Through a narrative review, we aimed to determine if the scientific literature allowed for an evaluation of the agroecological contribution of alternative livestock farming practices. Taking advantage of ruminants’ capacity to digest human-inedible plant material such as hay and pasture on marginal land reduces the competition between livestock feed and human food for arable land. Taking advantage of monogastric animals’ capacity to digest food waste or byproducts limits the need for grain feed. Pasturing spreads manure directly on the field and allows for the expression of natural animal behavior. Animals raised on alternative livestock farms, however, grow slower and live longer than those raised on large specialized farms. This causes them to consume more feed and to emit more greenhouse gases per unit of meat produced. Direct or short supply chain marketing fosters geographical and relational proximity, but alternative livestock farms’ contribution to the social equity and responsibility principles of agroecology are not well documented. Policy aimed at promoting practices currently in place on alternative livestock farms is compatible with agroecology but has to be envisioned in parallel with a reduction in animal consumption in order to balance nutrient and carbon cycles.

Understanding the Dairy Sector in Slovenia: A Modeling Approach for Policy Evaluation and Decision Support

This study investigates the dairy sector in Slovenia, focusing on farm heterogeneity, efficiency in resource utilization, and policy implementations. Through a modeling approach, we explore the differences among dairy farms, considering factors such as herd size, farm management, natural conditions, and production potential. Based on 32 typical dairy farms, representing the entire dairy sector, composed of 6400 dairy farms, the analysis was performed using the farm model (SiTFarm). We emphasize the importance of accurate assessments, given the variability of policy impacts across farm types. While medium-to-large, specialized farms dominate milk production, smaller farms, particularly in less favored areas, hold social and environmental importance despite facing competitive challenges. Addressing environmental sustainability could involve promoting practices that improve milk yield and include grazing, as this tends to lower greenhouse gas emissions per kilogram of milk (−5%). Dairy farms contribute about one-third of the generated revenue in Slovene agriculture, of which a good half goes to farms located in less favored areas. They manage a good quarter of permanent grassland in Slovenia, and it is certainly the sector that can achieve the highest return on these areas. In 75% of the farms, the gross margin is higher than 1756 EUR/ha and using best practices they exceed 3400 EUR/ha. The model results indicate that the average hourly rate on dairy farms during the observed period falls within the range of EUR 7.3 to 17.4 of gross margin for most farms, with the top-performing ones exceeding 24 EUR/h. However, due to the significant reliance on budgetary payments (on average, 58% of the gross margin), the implementation of the common agricultural policy strategic plan generally leads to a deterioration in the economic indicators of dairy farms. This impact is particularly pronounced on medium-sized and larger farms, increasing the effect on income due to the substantial fixed costs involved. Our findings underscore the interplay between policy interventions, farm characteristics, and sectoral outcomes, offering valuable insights for policy-makers and stakeholders.

INTERACTION EFFECT OF CHEMICAL AND ORGANIC FERTILIZERS ON THE YIELD AND YIELD COMPONENTS OF Gundelia rosea AT DIFFERENT PLANT DENSITIES IN THE FIELD

Field experiments were conducted at two locations, Grdarasha Research Field Station, College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences, Salahaddin University – Erbil and Aquban special farm using randomized complete block design (RCBD) during two seasons 2019-2020 and 2020-2021 to study the effect of different plant densities and compost fertilizer of solid waste management and sorting of Akre district-Duhok province and NPK (20:20:20) fertilizer on growth and edible portion characteristics of Gundelia rosea. The results indicated that the plants of the two years age in the both locations produce the highest value of length, dimeter, fresh and dry weight of edible portion with space increasing between plants and rows. While, total fresh and dry weight increased with decreasing the distance between plants and rows. Compost and compost + NPK fertilizer significantly increasing all edible portion parameters in both locations. The interaction between density and fertilizer resulted that D5 and compost and compost +NPK treatment produce the maximum rate of length, dimeter, fresh and dry weight of edible portion, while D1 and compost and compost + NPK record the highest total fresh and dry weight production.

Development of Ecologically Sustainable Green Products Usable in the Agro-Sector as a Result of Innovative Technical Education

Growing concern of carbon dioxide emissions, greenhouse effects and rapid depletion of fossil fuels raise the necessity to produce and adopt new eco friendly sustainable alternatives to the internal combustion engine driven vehicles. For this reason, in the last decade, electric vehicles have become in some way widespread, principally because of their negligible flue gas emissions and lesser reliance on oil. Although electric cars were introduced many years ago, agriculture electric vehicles have recently gained attention. The world of agriculture has changed, small specialized farm utility vehicles are now used for a specific purpose, and in several cases they have an electric engine.

Responsible investments in hop farming: Foreign and domestic experience

The article examines the current trends in the investment activity of hop farming in the main hop-producing countries. The structure of investments in fixed assets of the industry in large specialized farms in the USA (Washington State University methodology), in small farms in the USA (joint methodology of the University of Michigan and Vermont), in average farms in Europe (SIMAHOP methodology of the Slovenian Institute of Hop Research and Brewing) and in farms of the Chuvash Republic — the main hop-producing region of Russia (model CCU of the Czech Republic “Agro-Innovations”). According to the results of the study, it was revealed that the hop growers bear the greatest investment costs at the initial stage — during the construction of the hop frames and the laying of hops. Capital investments at this point account for 50-60% of all long-term investments. On average, 15% to 19% of investments are invested in the purchase of specialized machinery and equipment. From 20% to 30% is occupied by investment costs for hop harvesting points.

Locally available compost application in organic farms: 2-year effect on biological soil properties

Abstract Composting technologies have progressed parallel to the growing interest in recycling organic waste over recent decades, whilst in-field compost application requires technical improvement and more experience in order to optimize their effect according to the agro-environment and the type of crop which follow their incorporation into the soil. In response to compost application, biological soil features were assessed in field by adopting precision agricultural machinery and by limiting soil incorporation to a depth of 15 cm. A 2-year trial was carried out on two sites in the East Po valley (Northern Italy), an agricultural district which, in 2000, was classified as being on the verge of desertification, and where efforts to counteract soil organic matter decline have been underway for some decades. A green-waste compost produced in accordance with current national directives was applied in autumn 2019 and 2020 to two organic fields using precision farming machinery for compost spreading and conventional harrows for incorporation. Fields were divided into two large plots to compare the effect of compost treatment to an untreated control and were managed according to organic farming practices. Seven months after application, microbial biomass, assessed in terms of DNA, and 17 enzymatic activities were estimated by sampling root-explored soil at the vegetative stage of different seed crops for organic horticulture. A significant overall increase of biological soil activity was detected after the second application. The qualitative response varied slightly between the two sites: a higher impact of microbial biomass was observed in the site that was poorer in soil organic matter; whilst in the other, an increase of phosphatase activities contributed more to the general increase of biological activity. Findings show that, in those agricultural soils, an agronomic advantage from compost can be obtained only after repeated applications; furthermore, precision farming technologies facilitate compost application even in small, specialized farms such as those which hosted this trial.

The Effect of Erythritol Injection in Decreasing of Abortion Rate in Local Breed Ewes.

This study designed to evaluate the effect of Erythritol injection in decreasing of abortion rate in local breed ewes. Fifty pregnant ewes from local breed aged 2-4 years with a history of abortion except G1, were fed ad libitum hay and grains with water. The study was carried out in Salah Aldein province at special farm at a period of July-November 2022. These animals were tests for brucella by using rose Bengal and ELISA at zero day for confirmation; these animals were divided into 5 groups: G1 was brucella -ve and pregnant at 60 days, G2 was brucella +ve and pregnant at 60 days, G3 brucella+ve pregnant animals and treated by antibiotics gentamicin 10%, 3 ml/animal for 3 days, G4 brucella +ve and pregnant and giving erythritol, 10 ml S/C of 10% solution (solve in water and glycerol), and G5 was brucella +ve, and all pregnant and giving Erythritol+ gentamycin 10%, 3 ml/animal for 3 days. The experiment takes 12 weeks. Blood was withdrawn at different times of experiment (0, 2 weeks and end of experiment). The seroprevalence of brucellosis was shown that all animals at G4 and G5 where seropositive after 14 days of experiment, at end of pregnancy the seropositivity were highly significantly in G4 and G5 as compared with another groups. The current results showed that percentages of abortion were higher in G2, followed by G3, while it has been reduced significantly in G4 and G1. In conclusion, Erythritol alone can decrease the rate of abortion by making the bacteria extracellular far from placenta and evading of infection by immunity and/or gentamicin injection. Also, erythritol can be used as elicit diagnosis of brucellosis in latent infected animals.

Sustainability and perspectives of the North Macedonian dairy industry

The subject of this review is the dairy industry in the Republic of North Macedonia. This industry can bring many economic and social benefits to society and the economy. The paper provides a description and analysis of the current situation within the dairy industry in our country. Milk production rates in our country are analyzed, with a comparative approach to production rates at global and European levels. In the Republic of North Macedonia, milk production is characterized by many traditional small farmers (80% of the total) with 1-3 cows and low annual milk productivity (2-3 thousand liters per cow). The number of large specialized farms with more than 15 cows (about 3% of the total) with annual milk production of about 5 thousand liters per cow is minimal. Only 1% of all farms have more than 50 cows. The Republic of North Macedonia is an absolute importer of milk and its products. The quantity and monetary value of imported milk and its products are many times higher than the quantity and value of exported milk. Today, the dairy industry faces various challenges in the three main pillars of sustainability: economic, social and environmental including fluctuating market prices, high labor costs, and demographic characteristics of the population in terms of age. In conclusion, for the dairy industry to be sustainable, all activities should be carried out in partnership with the industry (along the value chain), policymakers and a wide range of stakeholders, including consumers.

Trade-Off between Land Use Pattern and Technical Efficiency Performance: Evidence from Arable Crop Farming in Tunisia

Cereal, oilseed, and protein (COP) production is an important sector contributing to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Tunisia. COP farms often diversify their production patterns to stabilize their income sources and spread production risk across crops. However, crop diversity may entail an inefficient use and management of resources to achieve the desired output. In addition, the COP sector still shows a low productivity level, depending on weather conditions in Tunisia. In this context, this study aimed to assess the relationship between the land use pattern and efficiency performance of farms. We used data envelopment analysis (DEA) in the presence of uncertainty based on state-contingent techniques. This approach has not previously been used to examine the links between crop pattern and efficiency. We found that specialized COP farms, on average, exhibited higher technical efficiency levels than those adopted mix cropping systems (83% and 60%, respectively), indicating an important margin to reduce inefficiency. Nevertheless, both diversified and specialized farms could reduce their inefficiency levels through more rational input use to attain the current level of production. Some practical implications were derived to target policy interventions to enhance agricultural productivity and resource use efficiency.

Simulating risk management strategies for specialized farming systems: the potential impact of the EU income stabilization tool

PurposeThis study assesses the potential impact of the European Income Stabilization Tool (IST – a whole farm income risk management [RM] tool) within a farm cooperative specializing in vineyards and operating in a small area of production. The authors assess the conditions under which IST could improve the well-being of the associated farmers and, at the same time, improve financial sustainability. Financial aspects are of particular relevance since the characteristics of the cooperative cause the management of the tool to become potentially risky.Design/methodology/approachThe analysis relies on a balanced panel dataset to report the production and economic characteristics of individual associated farms. This is the basis for simulating the implementation of the IST as described in the current European regulation. The expected utility approach is then used to assess the potential impact on farmers' well-being under different levels of risk aversion and premiums. The analysis of the IST annual cash flow allows for an accurate assessment of its financial sustainability.FindingsThe results suggest that the IST can improve farmers' well-being under plausible levels of risk aversion and premiums, making most farmers willing to support its implementation. Furthermore, the tool could be financially sustainable even if implemented in a specialized and geographically concentrated group of farms. In addition, the results suggest that the use of strategies such as the IST could help cope with negative annual balances by treating the financial sustainability of the fund.Originality/valueThe analysis adds to previous research on the IST by accounting for farmers' risk aversion. Furthermore, it is the first analysis that simulates the implementation of this tool in a sector-specific and concentrated group of farms. The results provide useful evidence for those subjects planning to implement the IST in small and specialized farming systems.

Identification of representative dairy cattle and fodder crop production typologies at regional scale in Europe

European dairy production faces significant economic, environmental, and social sustainability challenges. Given the great diversity of dairy cattle production systems in Europe, region-specific concepts to improve environmental and socioeconomic sustainability are needed. Regionally integrated dairy cattle-crop systems emerge as a more resilient and sustainable alternative to highly specialized farming systems. Identifying different dairy cattle production typologies and their potential interactions with fodder crop production is presented as a step in transitioning to optimized agricultural systems. Currently existing typologies of integrated systems are often insufficient when characterizing structural, socioeconomic, and environmental components of farms. We fill this gap in the literature by identifying, describing, and comparing representative dairy cattle production system typologies and their interrelation with regional fodder crop production at the European regional scale. This is a necessary step to assess the scope for adapted mitigation and sustainability measures in the future. For this purpose, a multivariate statistical approach is applied. We show how different land-use practices, farm structure characteristics, socio-economic attributes, and emission intensities condition dairy production. Furthermore, the diversity of regional fodder crop production systems is demonstrated by analyzing their distribution in Europe. Together with identified typologies, varying degrees of regional specialization in milk production allow for identifying future strategies associated with the application of integrated systems in key European dairy regions. This study contributes to a better understanding of the existing milk production diversity in Europe and their relationship with regional fodder crop production. In addition, we discuss the benefits of integrated systems as a clear, viable, and resilient alternative to ongoing livestock intensification in the European context. Identifying interactions between components of integrated systems will facilitate decision-making, the design and implementation of measures to mitigate climate change, and the promotion of positive socio-economic and environmental interactions.

Viability of a multi-parcel agroecological system

To satisfy a rising demand, agricultural practices have shifted from the organic fertilization of soils to intensive and highly specialized farming that uses chemical fertilization. The resulting short-term increase in soil productivity has lead to serious ecological drawbacks over time, e.g., degradation of soil quality, pollution of water and air, and loss of biodiversity. Given this state of affairs, it is urgent to find alternative practices that preserve soil quality and, at the same time, ensure farmers receive acceptable revenues. In this work, we rely on viability theory to determine a set of policies that make it possible to reach this dual objective. The proposed multi-parcel land model is applied to data from the archipelago of Guadeloupe, located in the French West Indies.

Agrarian change, livelihood dynamics and welfare outcomes: Evidence from plantation crop farmers in Indonesia

In the tropical belt of Africa, Asia, and the Americas, smallholder farming is undergoing a significant transformation from subsistence-oriented to highly specialized and market-oriented plantation systems. While understanding the transition of livelihoods of plantation farm households over time is an important development goal, available empirical evidence is scant. This study provides the first quantitative evidence on the dynamics, transitions, and determinants of livelihood strategies linked to the crop choices of commercial farm households in the tropics. We use three-wave panel data of oil palm and rubber farmers from Indonesia for the empirics. Particular emphasis is placed on the trade-offs smallholders face in growing these two crops. Employing the dynamic livelihood strategy framework and Latent Markov Model estimations, we reveal that even highly specialized farm households pursue diversified livelihood strategies, and they actively switch between the identified strategies. Over time, significant changes are observed in the composition of strategies, which continue to be dominated by oil palm-oriented and off-farm-based activities. Inter alia, climate anomalies and a decline in oil palm and rubber prices influence the dynamics and trajectories of the livelihood strategies. We also find that a larger farm size possibly hinders households' labor allocation to more remunerative off-farm activities, implying that possessing a larger farm-land alone may not suffice for improving farmers’ wellbeing. We conclude by discussing the generalizability of our findings and providing implications for future research and policymaking.

МОНИТОРИНГОВЫЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ВАРЕНО- МОРОЖЕНЫХ КРЕВЕТОК НА ОСТАТОЧНЫЕ КОЛИЧЕСТВА АНТИБИОТИКОВ ИЗ ГРУППЫ НИТРОФУРАНОВ И ХЛОРАМФЕНИКОЛА С ПОМОЩЬЮ БИОЛЮМИНЕСЦЕНТНОГО МЕТОДА

Shrimp are crustaceans that live in the seas and some fresh water bodies. The properties of this seafood depend on the conditions where they were grown, since some are grown as aquaculture on special farms. Shrimp, like other inhabitants of sea waters, are capable of accumulating heavy metals, free radicals that cause cancer, antibiotics and other substances. This article describes a validated method for testing shrimp for residues of antibiotics from the nitrofuran and chloramphenicol group using the Randox bioluminescence method. Monitoring studies of 30 samples of boiled-frozen shrimp were carried out. At the same time, no antibiotics from the group of nitrofurans and chloramphenicol were found, which indicates the good quality of the supplied products.

ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ФОРМУВАННЯ КОНКУРЕНТНИХ ПЕРЕВАГ ЗЕМЛЕКОРИСТУВАННЯ В КРАЇНАХ ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКОГО СОЮЗУ ТА УКРАЇНІ

The article studies the peculiarities of formation of competitive advantages of land use in such countries of the European Union as France, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Austria, Hungary, Lithuania, Italy, Belgium, etc. It has been found that in European countries private ownership of land dominates, A soil conservation and conservation programme is in place, free consultations on rationalization of land use, prevailing leasing relationships, successful development of the land market, functioning of land use is based on the activities of highly specialized farms, operating financial support for enterprises maintaining competitive positions in the market, operates a specialized land protection legislation, there is a concept of the economy. It has been found that special factors on which the competitive advantages of land use depend are the acquisition of new competencies in the implementation of production; the use of new competitive technologies; Implementation of innovations to increase production efficiency; application of progressive competitive advantages; effective use of existing production resources. It has been determined that the competitive advantages of land use in Ukraine in the current conditions should include ensuring a balanced distribution of land between economic entities and sectors of the national economy; strengthening the integration of science, Education and production; restoration of production capacity and knowledge-intensive production in the economic space; rehabilitation of transport infrastructure and logistics; Updating existing production capacities; supporting international business cooperation; harnessing new knowledge and experience and developing business technologies for land operators. The marked competitive advantages in their implementation can ensure a high standard of living of the population, as well as will stimulate the achievements of economic entities in competitiveness in the world space.

Efficiency of expanded compound feed application for broiler chickens

The intensification of animal husbandry is accompanied by an increase in demand for high-quality compound feed, which largely determines the level of development and economics of animal husbandry, especially industrial, specialized livestock farms. Reducing feed costs is one of the key challenges. Its solution is impossible without the rational use of grain and other raw materials, the introduction of modern innovative technologies and equipment at feed mills. Barothermal treatment of the grain mixture in the expander reduces bacterial contamination, completely destroys coliform bacteria, E. coli, mold fungi and salmonella. The technology for the production of expanded feed for broiler chickens was developed in the course of the work. Broiler chickens of the Smena 7 cross were used as the object of the study. It was found that the chicken palatability of the expanded compound feed developed with the help of the optimization program "Korm Optima Expert" improved and at the age of 28 days their live weight increased by 2.5–3 times in groups, chickens that received grits from granular expandate having the highest indicator (915 g). At the end of the experiment 42-days old chickens of the control group had a live weight of 2246 g, and the chickens that received granulated expandate - 2574 g. The average daily gain in live weight of chickens was 66.4 g, which is 7.9% higher than in the control group. The results of the control slaughter of chickens showed an increased yield of meat in chickens treated with expanded pellets (69.5%) compared to the control (67.6%). The best indicators of the productivity of broiler chickens of the Smena 7 cross were obtained when feeding compound feed in the form of grains from granulated expandate in the first period of cultivation and granulated expandate in the second period of cultivation.

No Chance of Success. State Agrarian Real Estate 1946–1949. A Contribution to the Research on the History of the State Agricultural Sector in Poland

Abstract The years of activity of the PNZ (Państwowe Nieruchomości Ziemskie – State Agrarian Real Estate) fell into the period of post-war agricultural reconstruction and management of Recovered Territories. Initially, their main task was to prepare for the parceling out of large landed estates, which was important for the settlement campaign. The target task was to run specialized farms that would supply the entire agriculture with seed and breeding material. After the escape of S. Mikołajczyk, the communists changed the priorities of PNZ activity, which from then on were to deal with large-scale production, and above all, manage about 1,200 hectares of agricultural land. The vast majority of the area used by PNZ was located in the western and northern regions of the country. The best conditions existed in those areas for establishing a state sector in agriculture. In spite of many achievements, PNZ was liquidated because the communists wanted to get rid of the prewar staff of specialists, mostly landowners, from the enterprise. This decision was political in nature. State farms were then created to replace PNZ.

Issues of Subtropical Fruits and its Development in the Surkhondaryo Region

This article describes the surface structure of the Surkhandaryo region of the Republic of Uzbekistan and the associated subtropical climate and describes the existing opportunities for the development of subtropical fruit growing. In particular subtropical fruits such as pomegranates, sugar cane, oranges, lemons, jerusalem artichokes, stevia, olives, oriental dates have been scientifically elucidated for high yields and industrial processing through extensive zoning and the creation of special farms. It is also advisable to establish nurseries specializing in the cultivation of seedlings in Denav, Sariosiya, Uzun, Altynsay districts of the region.

Effect of intercropping and plant distribution of sorghum with soybean on growth and yield of Sorghum bicolor

This field experiment was carried out at special farm at Luxor governorate, Egypt during 2018 and 2019 seasons to study the effect of some intercropping patterns and plant distributions of sorghum (var. Dorado) and soybean (var. Giza-111) on the growth, yield and yield components and the economic return of the sorghum plants. The experimental was laid out in split-split plot with randomized block design in three replications. The plant height of sorghum was significant affected by the different intercropping patterns and plant density in the second season only as a result of the interaction between the number of plants/ hill and the intercropping patterns. The highest values of panicle length ​​were by sole cropping of sorghum compared to the other intercropping patterns. Sowing sorghum – soybean plants as 1:1 side on the same row resulted in the highest values of panicle weight and grain yield /plant of sorghum in the mean of seasons. Sowing of sorghum as sole crop at 15 cm between hills plus two plants /hill followed by 4:2 row intercropping gave the highest values of grain weight /plot and grain yield /feddan (feddan = 0.420 hectares = 1.037 acres) in the two seasons compared to the other treatments. The highest value of land equivalent ratio (1.41) resulted from the use of 3:3 row pattern of intercropping with two plants /hill and 15 cm spacing. Also, there is an increase in the value of the land equivalent ratio (1.29) with the use of the 4:2 row pattern of sorghum-soybean intercropping with 2 plants /hill and 15 cm between hills. The most profitable system was intercropping of sorghum: soybean as 3: 3 or 4:2 row patterns and 15 or 20 cm between hills with planting two plants /hill.

Impact of K-Humate and Yeast Extract Combined with Np Fertilization on Soybean Seed Yield, Quality and Protection against some Pests

Two field experiments were conducted at a special farm, in El Mansoura, Dakahlia Governorate, Egypt, during the two growing summer seasons of 2018 and 2019 to find out the influence of soil drench by potassium Humate (KH) and yeast extract (YE) as foliar application alone or combined (KH+YE) under different rates of N and P fertilization on plant growth, yield, quality and protection against some pests of soybean plants (Glycine max L.), c.v. Giza 111. The treatments of NP fertilization rates were arranged in the main plots and the HK and YE were arranged in sub-plots in a split-plot design with three replicates. Results indicated that the application of soil drench KH and YE spraying and (KH+YE) had a positive effect on growth parameters, photosynthetic pigments, seed yield and yield components of the soybean plants. The duel application (KH+EY) showed a significant augmentation in all studied parameters compared to the control under 50, 75 .and 100% of the recommended mineral fertilization does (RFD. The whitefly Bemisia tabaci Genn. represented the most pest attacking soybeans with a ratio around 56 % followed by Aphis cracivora Kock (30%), While Tetranychus urticae Koch ranged (8-10%). respectively .But mealybug Phenococcus solani Ferrisia in % occurrences a ratio around (3-6%) during 2018 and 2019 seasons. In treatment were spray (combined of KH+YE ) decreased population of B. tabaci Genn. (9.75 nymphs /10 leaves). Therefore, this investigation revealed that the synergistic effect of HK (5 ml l-1) and YE (4 g l-1 ) in combination treatment with 75% NP is important for improving plant quality and this decreased insect infestation and the environmental pollution caused by repeated application of agricultural chemicals as mineral fertilizers and pesticides.