Speaker Says Research Articles

Testimonial Injustice and the Ideology Which Produces It

Abstract Recently, some scholars have argued that testimonial injustice may not only be due to prejudice toward the speaker, but also prejudice toward the content of what the speaker says. I argue that such accounts do not merely expand our picture of epistemic injustice, but give us reason to radically revise our approach to reducing testimonial injustice. The dominant conception of this project focuses on reducing speaker prejudice. But even if one were to successfully do so, the frequency of content prejudice means that one would still commit testimonial injustice in many of the same circumstances. I argue that we must reorient the project of reducing testimonial injustice toward critiquing the ideologies that produce it. I conclude with a sketch of what such a research program might look like.

How slurs enact norms, and how to retract them

The present paper considers controversial utterances that were erroneously taken as derogatory. These examples are puzzling because, despite the audiences’ error, many speakers retract and even apologise for what they didn’t say and didn’t do. In recent years, intuitions about retractions have been used to test semantic theories. The cases discussed here test the predictive power of theories of derogatory language and help us to better understand what is required to retract a slur. The paper seeks to answer three questions: are the cases considered genuine retractions? If the speakers didn’t derogate by using a slur, how are the cases retractions of derogatory acts? Do these examples support expressive accounts of slurs? I argue that the examples provide evidence for an expressivist account of slurs: a slurring utterance (defeasibly) makes a derogatory speech act where the speaker expresses a commitment to a morally questionable appraisal state, such as disgust or contempt for a target group. A retraction of a derogatory speech act requires undoing the enactment of that commitment, which can be achieved with a genuine apology. This helps explain the conduct of audiences who misunderstand what the speaker says, and the speakers’ reactions.

An Analysis of Speech Acts: Request in Daily Conversation

In daily conversation, people frequently communicate implicitly as an issue that is covered in illocutionary acts. Illocutionary acts have five types, they are representative/assertive, directive, commissive, expressive and declaration. This research was aimed to analyze the used of request in daily conversation in the sentences form. The request speech acts were analyzed based on the Yule theory and the type of sentences based on Frank theory. The data were taken from the daily conversation between the researcher and the speaker in daily life. The subject of this research was researcher’s friend who doing talk with the researcher. This research employed qualitative research. The result of this research showed that there are three types of sentences, namely; statement sentences, interrogative sentences, and imperative sentences. From the total data 25 sentence, the researcher found that there are 18 sentences of imperative (72%), 5 sentences of interrogative (20%), and 2 sentences of statement (2%). Therefore, the most dominant type of sentence used by the speaker is imperative sentence. Meanwhile, the least type of sentence used by speaker is statement sentence. The speaker often used imperative sentence because of its function to get the hearer to do something. Imperative sentence can be used for directive speech act because the speaker wants the hearer or target to do what the speaker says.

Discourse Markers in the Students’ Individual Presentation in Indonesian Classroom

Individual presentation is one of common presentations used by students to present certain topic given by the lecturers in the class. This kind of presentation may take place in a range of setting such as in the classroom by providing question-and-answer session. Individual presentation might also invite classroom interaction among the students. One specific aspect of individual presentation which may contribute to the effective classroom interaction is the use of discourse markers by the students. This paper focuses to investigate the functions of discourse markers used by the students in the individual presentation as well as the students’ interaction during the presentation. Using data from an English class, this study describes the occurrences of discourse markers (DMs) used by the students in their individual presentations. To collect data, the researchers recorded individual presentations of the students in the class. Two long recording and transcription of the individual presentations was sampled and analyzed using discourse analysis approach. The discourse markers used by the students were analyzed using Schiffrin’s perspective of discourse markers (1987). Findings show that the students’ most common use of discourse markers function as pause filler, delaying tactic, hesitation device, to order the sequence of what the speaker says. Findings of this study are relevant to improve students’ English language proficiency and serves as a beneficial input for teachers and students to create effective classroom interaction.Keywords: Individual Presentation, Discourse Markers, Discourse Analysis, Scriffin’s discourse makers (DMs) perspective

Doxastic Justification and Testimonial Beliefs

Abstract I argue that a general feature of human psychology provides strong reason to modify or reject anti-reductionism about the epistemology of testimony. Because of the work of what I call “the background” (which is a collection of all of an individual's synthetizations, summarizations, memories of experiences, beliefs, etc.) we cannot help but form testimonial beliefs on the basis of a testifier's say so along with additional evidence, concepts, beliefs, and so on. Given that we arrive at testimonial beliefs through the work of the background, to be justified in holding a testimonial belief, we must not only have a rational speaker's say so, but we must also form such beliefs in a right way. If this is right, then, contrary to typical anti-reductionism, justified testimonial beliefs require more than just a trustworthy testifier's say so – another requirement is that they are formed in a right way.

Experienced Users’ Strategies to Address Challenges with Internet Protocol Caption Telephone Services

Internet Protocol Caption Telephone Services provide access to telecommunication for persons who are d/Deaf or Hard of Hearing as users can listen to and read captions of what the other speaker says. This paper presents the results of Applied Cognitive Task Analyses with d/Deaf or Hard of Hearing users to uncover the strategies experienced caption phone users deploy to address communication challenges. Results indicate that users learn strategies that involve adapting their communication behaviors, obtaining the collaboration of the other speaker, selecting the best technology for specific settings, and disclosing hearing loss. Some situations are particularly challenging, e.g., higher caption error when the other speaker has an “accent” or the conversation includes technical language; having to disclose hearing loss and thus risking negative consequences due to biases against disability. Findings can help accelerate novice users’ learning of strategies and inform the development of sociotechnical solutions for caption phones’ current shortcomings.

Culturally Specific Messaging and the Explanation of Contact in Impacted Bilinguals

A sketch is offered of a framework that would abandon the familiar notion of a language and the accompanying question of whether it has changed under contact. The framework would focus instead on speakers and on the linguistic consequences of people contact. Speakers in contact settings are not failing or deviating from a language’s norm while attempting to say the same things that are said in non-contact settings; rather, they are succeeding at saying different things. New arrivals face vast differences in the conceptualization of referents between their home precursor setting and the new encounter setting. These differences in conceptualization give rise to large numbers of changes in what speakers say. In most cases, these new things they say are just that, new speech or new messaging with no change in the grammar. But in a minority of cases, the new messaging does have linguistic, that is, grammatical consequences. Changes in the grammars of people in contact thus result not only, and perhaps not primarily, from formal copying or modeling but are responses to new conceptualizations prevailing in the new environment. The distinction between expressions reflecting only new conceptualizations, and those reflecting new conceptualizations and new grammar carries theoretical implications for the way linguists think about the grammars of bilinguals. And it carries applied implications for the way educators think about the linguistic performance of bilingual students, especially in social settings where they are minoritized. Data are drawn from the speech of Latin Americans and their descendants in New York City and other U.S. locales.

Epistemic Modal Verbs in the Field of Linguistics and Literature: A Corpus-Based Study

Epistemic modality, a linguistic category, particularly deals with the interactive dimensions of various discourses. Epistemic modality in broad terms can be defined as any modal system that indicates the degree of assurance of what a speaker says. The present study identifies and analyzes the epistemic modal verbs EMVs in the dissertations of linguistics and literature. For this purpose, two sub-corpora of Ph.D. dissertations from the fields of linguistics and literature were constructed. The concordance tool AntConc3.5.8 was used to analyse the selected modal verbs. The most frequent epistemic modal auxiliaries used in both disciplines were found to be may, would and could. Interestingly, the EMVs were deployed by the researchers of linguistics more than twice as much used by the researchers of literature.

Sarah Morgan Bryan Piatt and the Double Time of Motherhood

Sarah Morgan Bryan Piatt and the Double Time of Motherhood

Instantaneous Errors and Body Gestures in Some American Political Contexts

The purpose of this research study is to give a psycholinguistic investigation of some of Trump's smiles, zone distances, handshaking styles, and speech errors. It is carried out under the framework of contextual congruence, which states that what speakers say, and their body movements should be compatible. To create a personal sketch for Trump, 73 short movies and 119 pictures were meticulously scrutinized. 81.4% of images and more than 65.3% of videos indicated phony grins provided to specific people, including Michael Flynn, Mike Pence, and John Kelly. Trump's genuine smile was only noticed when he was with one of his family members, particularly his daughter. With the exception of Nancy Pelosi, the results also suggested that Trump tended to breach his political foes’ intimate zones as a form of nonverbal political counterattack. The results also revealed that Trump's recursive handshake style was a double-handed handshake. He employed this method to demonstrate the sincerity of affection toward the recipient. He regularly gave this handshaking approach to various Asian politicians, who felt irritated by it, since Trump used to perform this handshaking in 30 seconds. Donald used all of his body language and facial clues to control not only his adversaries but also his allies and his speech errors reflected the same facts.

Deixis Analysis on The Halsey’s Song Lyrics “Manic” Album

Deixis is important to help the listener or addressee distinguish between what the speaker says and what is intended. It is possible that the listener might misinterpret a reference in vague utterance. The meaning of a sentence or utterance becomes understandable if the addressee knows who, when, and where it is spoken. In this study, researcher examines the types and meaning of deixis used in Halsey's songwriting lyrics. The study involves qualitative data analysis. The data are obtained through listening to song lyrics, understanding lyrics, looking for deixis, and finally noting down the data. After obtaining the data, the data are analyzed in some ways; identifying the types of deixis in Halsey’s song lyrics “manic” album, describing the meaning of deixis words that found in that song lyrics, and concluding the result of the data analysis. The result of the study showed that there are 130 data of deixis. They are divided into 105 data of person deixis, 5 data of place deixis, 1 datum of time deixis, 17 data of discourse deixis, and 2 data of social deixis in Halsey’s song lyric album. Person deixis was investigated as the most dominant type of deixis in the lyrics. All deixis had their meanings based on the situations of the song.

Pragmatic inference, levels of meaning and speaker accountability

Are speakers held more accountable for what they explicitly communicate than for what they implicate? Speakers typically communicate more than they linguistically encode, thus leaving to addressees the task of inferring what they intend to communicate. As a result, the linguistically decoded meaning is pragmatically enriched to arrive at what the speaker says (or directly communicates) - the ‘explicated content’ of the utterance - which can serve as a premise for the derivation of further implicit meanings - ‘implicatures’. This paper experimentally explores the relationship between speaker accountability and levels of meaning. Our findings demonstrate that speakers are held more accountable, and thus suffer greater reputational costs, when they explicitly communicate a piece of false information than when they do it implicitly, independently of whether or not there is pragmatic enrichment involved at the level of the ‘explicated content’ (Study 1). Furthermore, our findings show that, in deceptive contexts, the kind of pragmatic enrichment at issue does affect speaker accountability: when the deceptive content is inferred via completion, speakers are held more accountable for what they explicitly communicate than when it is inferred via expansion (Study 2). These results provide the first empirical evidence in favour of the relevance of the distinction between completion and expansion to liability judgements in cases of dishonest communication.

Rhetoric in Sen. “Sonny” Angara’s Speech During MPSPC’s Silver (25th) Charter Anniversary

Communication between a speaker and an audience occurs through speech. The technique of convincing the audience to believe what the speaker says is crucial in a persuasive speech. However, in the absence of a powerful speech, admirable methods of persuasion fall short of satisfying the audience. A speaker should therefore employ a balanced speech delivery strategy in his or her persuasive speech. The MPSPC’s 25th Charter Anniversary guest speaker, Senator Sonny Angara, delivered a speech to mark the occasion. The most important rhetorical appeal in Angara’s speech is emotional appeal (pathos), however he uses a range of rhetorical evidence. It was found that Senator Angara tried to increase the impact of his speech by using effective speech elements to clarify some of his points. In order to deliver a great speech, he uses narrative, good posture and body language, an appropriate tone of voice, and pauses.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO ENGLISH SPEAKING SKILLS

Sociolinguistics is a broad and integrated field of study that examines the perspectives of a particular society, together with its culture, how the target language is used, and the consequences of language on that society. The relationship between Foreign Language Learning (FLT) and sociolinguistics is significant in various ways. Sociolinguistics is highly connected to second language acquisition (SLA) to the extent that it intensely highlights an understanding of the process of language acquisition. This can be done by providing a broader and more comprehensive aspect of language, either at a verbal or non-verbal level (Rogen, 2002). This is because what a native speaker says may be above the actual meaning.Thus, as well as what is uttered, knowing with whom, where, when, and how to talk (discourse) is a key conceptual issue for a learner to pick out the hidden meaning behind (Kramsch, 1991). This leads the learner to decipher the implications—a more nuanced level of understanding of what is said. Sociolinguistics also highlights another key concept, ‘culture’ where a language comes alive. So, this discipline offers learners a high degree of awareness of "sociolinguistic competence", through which a foreign language learner gets exposed while acquiring values and beliefs in a particular society. Additionally, sociolinguistics facilitates contextual learning, which enables them to efficiently communicate in line with given situations and at an appropriate level of language. This is precisely what Speech Act Theory, which is profoundly founded on communicative competence, including such daily life uses as inviting, ordering, congratulating, and so on, suggests. This study highlights the notion that sociolinguistics enables foreign language learners to acquire a target language realistically and functionally, not only at the word and sentence levels but also at contextual levels. Hence, sociolinguistics allows learners to interact with native speakers through oral and written communication with more confidence.

Linguistic and paralinguistic constraints on the function of(eu) acho queas DM in Brazilian Portuguese

LikeI thinkin English,(eu) acho quein Brazilian Portuguese can function as a discourse marker (DM) with more than one meaning, and these meanings are curiously diametrically opposed. Certainty, doubt or uncertainty is inferred by hearers in an interactional context. In a sample of audio-video recorded interviews, the occurrences of this DM were classified by meaning, and association tests between meanings and linguistic factors (pronoun realization, polarity, position in utterance), real-world features (type of evidence from which the speaker says something, and discursive topic), prosody (F0, intensity and duration), and facial expressions were carried out. Differences that distinguish these factors were identified among certainty, doubt and uncertainty uses. The certainty meaning of(eu) acho quewas associated with pronoun presence, more formality and topics in which the speaker had direct evidence. Uncertainty and doubt were associated with pronoun absence, less formality and topics in which the speaker did not have direct evidence. Patterns of intensity and duration acted to distinguish the certainty, doubt and uncertainty meanings of(eu) acho que. In a conditional decision tree, the position in utterance, presence of a pronoun, type of speaker’s evidence, discursive topic, and duration helped to disambiguate the meanings of(eu) acho que. These results suggest the relevance of a multilevel approach to describe DM, in different languages, at least with respect to mental state verbs.

(Retracted) Anas platyrhynchos optimizer with deep belief network-based sarcasm detection and classification model

Sarcasm is a state of speech where the speaker says something that is externally unfriendly to wound or deride the listener. The design of an automated sarcasm detection model in the domain of natural language processing (NLP) is mainly based on the context of the statement/statement and sometimes even human beings cannot identify the intrinsic sarcasm in the statement. The recently developed deep learning (DL) models can accomplish better performance than the other traditional models. With this motivation, this study introduces an efficient Anas Platyrhynchos optimizer (APO) with deep belief network (DBN) based sarcasm detection and classification (APODBN-SDC) technique. The proposed APODBN-SDC model intends to properly identify the existence of sarcasm or not. Primarily, the data preprocessing stage encompasses different subprocesses and the preprocessed data can be transformed into the feature vectors using TF-IDFs technique. Finally, the normalized feature vectors are given as input to the DBN model for the detection and classification of sarcasm. Finally, the hyperparameter tuning of the DBN is optimally tuned by the use of APO technique and shows the novelty of the work. The proposed method is tested against the benchmark dataset and the results reported the enhancements of the proposed model with maximum precision of 98.88% and recall of 98.90%.

SPEECH ERRORS OF GIRL ENVIRONMENT ACTIVIST’S SPEECH IN PLASTIC HEALTH SUMMIT 2021

The aim of this study is to describe the types of speech errors, the frequency of errors, and the causes of Speech Eerrors of Girl Environment Activist’s Speech in Plastic Health Summit 2021. The type of this research is qualitative. The data are the utterances containing speech errors. The data was collected from videos watched on the plastic soup foundation YouTube account entitled Plastic Health Summit 2021 - Ms. Aeshnina Azzahra Aqilani (Nina), with a duration of 7:38 (seven minutes and thirty-nine seconds). The researcher finds six types of speech errors based on the theory of Clark and Clark. There are 28 speech errors uttered by Aeshnina Azzahra Aqilani with the frequencies as follows: silent pause (eleven times), filled pause (nine times), retraced false start (three times), repeats and interjections (two times), and stutters (one time). There are three causes: cognitive difficulty, anxiety, and social reason, this is caused by the occasional lack of concentration while the speakers say, and their concentration being hampered by the surrounding environment. There are many speech errors committed by Aeshnina Azzahra Aqilani which mean that she needs to increase her ability to deliver her speech smoothly and clearly. Keywords: Linguistics, Psycholinguistics, Speech errors

Utilizing Text-to-Speech Technology: Natural Reader in Teaching Pronunciation

This research stimulates the use of Natural Reader Text-to-Speech (TTS) in teaching pronunciation. This research is descriptive qualitative. The analysis shows the steps of using Natural Readers. Teachers/lecturers can click https://www.naturalreaders.com/. They can log in or register into the account. If they have an account, they can continue or click “Continue with Google” or “Continue with Apple”. They can type a word, sentence, or text in the column box, or click the + icon to upload documents in Word or Pdf. They can set the type of native speaker sound (male or female), volume, and speed of pronunciation before playing/listening to the pronunciation. When all the settings have been done, they click the play icon to hear the native speaker say that have been inputted. Teachers/lecturers can ask students to follow the native speakers to say the words or sentences so the students can pronounce English words correctly and fluently. They may quickly produce or export audio into MP3 files. The Natural reader app provides a text-to-speech converter solution for both websites and mobile apps. Natural Reader converts text into sound English with various accents such as British or American even other accents. This application has a free version, but the paid version has more complete features to be used in teaching and learning English pronunciation. This tool is capable of synthesizing the human voice from the previously entered text input. Natural Readers provide substantial text-to-speech support to meet a variety of student needs in English pronunciation.

Speech Act of the Main Character in “The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey”

Speech act is the utterance that speakers performs or speaker says in every speech. One of the benefits that can be learned on this study is help us to understand what hidden massage in every utterance. This research is aimed to explore the speech act in a fantasy film which is titled The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, The researcher pick this film as the object of research because this is a good film and the researcher finds some illocutionary acts. Moreover, the act of doing something as commonly known as Illocution, is a speech act that aimed at doing something (Parera, 1991:151). The concept of illocutionary act is expected to cover up the "act of saying something" in the "full normal sense". According to Austin the "full normal sense" can be explained as "the utterance of certain words in a certain construction, and the utterance of them with a certain 'meaning' in the favourite sense of that word". According to Searle (Mey. 1994:163) there are five types of illocutionary act, there are: representatives, directives, commisives, expressive, and declaratives. While this research will be focused on Directives. Speech act is one of important thing to learn, because by learning this we can improve our sense or can be easily understand what are the massage that hidden in every single speech or utterance in conversation or movie. As the focus of the research which is the directives speech act of The hobbit: An unexpected journey. The researcher is going to analyze what are the speech act that exist in that movie. This research is going to be a library research with qualitative method, this is going to be focused on illocutionary acts based on Searle that will be found on The hobbit: An unexpected journey movie script.

Ethos and Pragmatics

Ethos, the speaker’s image in speech is one of the three means of persuasion e stablished by Aristotle’s Rhetoric and is often studied in a loose way. Many scholars develop lists of self-images (ethos of a leader, modesty ethos, etc.), but few explain how one arrives at these types of ethos. This is precisely what the inferential approach described here intends to do. Considering, like many discourse analysts, that ethos is consubstantial with speech, this paper provides an overview of various types and subtypes of ethos and highlights how these can be inferred from the discourse. Mainly, we would like to point out that what the speaker says about him or herself is only a part of what has been called “said ethos”: inferential processes triggered by what the speaker says about collectivities, opponents, or the audience also help construct an ethos. This tool will be applied to analyze a corpus of Donald Trump’s tweets of 6 January 2021, the day of the assault on the Capitol. As the notion of inference is essential in creating ethos, the paper pleads for the integration of the study of this rhetorical notion in the field of pragmatics.