Spawning Patterns Research Articles

Temporal Patterns of Migration and Spawning of River Herring in Coastal Massachusetts

AbstractMigrations of springtime Alewife Alosa pseudoharengus and Blueback Herring A. aestivalis, collectively referred to as river herring, are monitored in many rivers along the Atlantic coast to estimate population sizes. While these estimates give an indication of annual differences in the number of returning adults, links to the subsequent timing and duration of spawning and freshwater juvenile productivity remain equivocal. In this study, we captured juvenile river herring at night in 20 coastal Massachusetts lakes using a purse seine and extracted otoliths to derive daily fish ages and back‐calculate spawn dates. Estimates of spawning dates were compared with fishway counts of migrating adults to assess differences in migration timing and the timing and duration of spawning. We observed a distinct delay between the beginning of the adult migration run and the start of spawning, ranging from 7 to 28 d across the 20 lakes. Spawning continued 13–48 d after adults stopped migrating into freshwater, further demonstrating a pronounced delay in spawning following migration. Across the study sites the duration of spawning (43–76 d) was longer but not related to the duration of migration (29–66 d). The extended spawning period is consistent with recent studies suggesting that Alewives are indeterminate spawners. The long duration in freshwater provides the opportunity for top‐down (i.e., predation on zooplankton) and bottom‐up (i.e., food for avian, fish, and other predators) effects, with implications for freshwater food webs and nutrient cycling. General patterns of spawn timing and duration can be incorporated into population models and used to estimate temporal changes in productivity associated with variable timing and density of spawning river herring in lakes.

Vulnerability of spawning aggregations of a coastal marine fish to a small-scale fishery

For marine fishes that form spawning aggregations, vulnerability to aggregation fishing is influenced by interactions between the spatio-temporal patterns of spawning and aspects of the fishery that determine fishing effort, catch, and catch rate in relation to spawning. We investigated the spatio-temporal dynamics of spawning and fishing for the barred sand bass, Paralabrax nebulifer, in Punta Abreojos, Mexico from 2010 to 2012 as a means to assess its vulnerability to aggregation fishing by the local commercial fishery. Monthly, spatial patterns in gonadal development in collected females indicated that adults formed spawning aggregations at two sites in Punta Abreojos during July and August. Monthly patterns in the spatial distribution of fishing matched the spawning behavior of P. nebulifer, with effort and catch concentrated at spawning aggregation sites during those months. However, fishing effort, catch, and catch-per-unit effort did not increase during the spawning season, and fishing activities associated with the spawning season comprised only a small percentage of the total annual effort (22%) and catch (17%). Therefore, while the population of P. nebulifer at Punta Abreojos should be vulnerable to aggregation fishing due to the spatio-temporal dynamics of its spawning aggregations, vulnerability is greatly reduced, because fishing activities are not disproportionately focused on spawning aggregations and fishing methods are not optimized to maximize harvest from the aggregations. Differences between our results and previous studies on aggregation fisheries for P. nebulifer in California, USA, reinforce the importance of assessing factors influencing vulnerability to aggregation fishing at regional scales for prioritizing management efforts.

Spawning areas of Engraulis anchoita in the Southeastern Brazilian Bight during late-spring and early summer

Analysis of fish egg density and distribution is indispensable for the understanding of the adult stock variability, and is a powerful tool for fisheries management. Thus, the objective of the present study was to characterize the spatial-temporal spawning patterns of Engraulis anchoita in the Southeastern Brazilian Bight, in terms of geographic location and abiotic factors. We analyzed data of eggs sampled during ten years, from 1974 to 1993, to create maps of the mean and the standard deviation (sd) of the estimated probability of egg presence, through indicative kriging. Preferred, tolerated and avoided temperature, salinity, local depth and distance for spawning of E. anchoita were defined by the estimation of bootstrapped confidence intervals of the quotient values (Q). Despite not having identified any recurrent spawning sites, a few occasional and unfavorable spawning sites were identified, showing that the spawning habit of E. anchoita not only varied spatially, but also temporally. The largest occasional spawning site and with the highest probability of egg presence (0.6–0.7) was located around 27°S, close to Florianópolis (Santa Catarina state). On the other hand, a well-marked unfavorable spawning site was located off São Sebastião Island (São Paulo state), with the probability of egg presence between 0–0.1. Abiotic and biotic factors that could be related to the changes in the spawning areas of E. anchoita were discussed, with shelf width, mesoscale hydrodynamic features and biological interactions apparently playing important roles in defining spawning sites.

Sea cucumbers, Holothuria arguinensis and H. mammata, from the southern Iberian Peninsula: Variation in reproductive activity between populations from different habitats

New fisheries in the western Mediterranean and north eastern Atlantic target the sea cucumbers Holothuria arguinensis and H. mammata; however, lack of biological information hinders management decisions. Here, the reproductive biology of populations the two species was investigated in the southern Iberian Peninsula. Different populations located along a narrow latitudinal range displayed the same general reproductive pattern of summer-autumn spawning. However, significant differences in size, gonadal production and maturity profile between locations suggests the influence of site-specific factors. In Sagres and Ria Formosa H. arguinensis individuals were larger and had larger gonads than in Olhos de Água, which had relatively more immature animals. The spawning and active gametogenesis periods were also longer in Sagres, possibly linked to specificity of food availability and tidal conditions. Ria Formosa also had larger H. mammata individuals with larger gonads than in Murcia and Olhos de Água, possibly reflecting differences in feeding activity in different substrates (muddy/sandy vs rocky). Gametogenesis in H. arguinensis may be triggered by decreasing photoperiod and temperature, and spawning by increasing temperature. Altogether, these results, which include fecundity and size at first maturity, provide an important basis for the scientific management of sea cucumber fisheries in the region.

The short-lived neon damsel Pomacentrus coelestis: implications for population dynamics.

Daily increments of Pomacentrus coelestis, an abundant and well-studied fish, were validated for the life of the fish and depending on the location, age-maxima were estimated to be 127-160 days on reefs separated by tens to hundreds of kilometres on the Great Barrier Reef. This contrasts with congeners and other damselfishes that live for 5 years or more. Otoliths of P. coelestis were thinner and had different patterns of banding when compared with relatively long-lived congeners. It is suggested that banding patterns in P. coelestis may be related to patterns of maturation and spawning. The consequences of a short life would have a great influence on the population dynamics of this widespread species. Further, the demographics and habitat preferences of this species suggest rapid colonization and establishment of breeding populations that would quickly change the relative abundance of sympatric fishes.

Phenologically distinct phytoplankton regions on the Faroe Shelf - identified by satellite data, in-situ observations and model

Marked inter-annual fluctuations in the primary production on the Faroe shelf propagate to higher trophic levels and influence commercial fish stocks. This has previously been demonstrated based on weekly chlorophyll samples from a coastal station, dating back to 1997.However, the spatial extent, for which the coastal samples are representative, has not been well defined, and potential bio-geographical segregations of the shelf have not been considered. By integrating 18years of chlorophyll satellite data, supplemented by in-situ, model, and meteorological reanalysis data, we identify three regions with unique characteristics with regards to surface chlorophyll and vertical structure - the Central Shelf, the Outer Shelf and the Eastern Banks. The observed difference in timing of the spring bloom in these regions helps explain different spawning patterns of important fish stocks, and the spatial division of the Faroe Shelf should be considered when studying biology and hydrography in these waters.A positive correlation between annual means on the outer Faroe Shelf and parts of the outer northwest Scottish Shelf indicates similarities between these neighbouring regions.We suggest that this similarity arises from the commonality in nutrient composition of the water masses shared by these neighbouring regions.

Participatory fishery monitoring is successful for understanding the reproductive biology needed for local fisheries management

Tropical fisheries management should rely on reproductive biology to inform management regulations; however, this information is often lacking and can be highly variable over in space and time. It is unfeasible for many fisheries, especially data-poor ones that are typical of tropical reefs to collect the necessary information on reproductive biology. One solution is a participatory approach where local fishers, scientists, and regulating agencies gather the necessary information to assess population variability for important management metrics such as size at maturity, reproductive output, and spawning seasons. Through collaborations with local fishers, we developed a monitoring program to gather population-level information on the reproductive characteristics of the convict tang, Acanthurus triostegus sandvicensis. We examined four locations across the main Hawaiian Islands and found size at maturity [size at which 50% of individuals are mature (L50)] to vary among locations, with interpopulation differences in maturity ~ 20% of the fish’s total length. Larger individuals produced more eggs and spawned more often than smaller individuals. A semilunar spawning pattern was observed, with group spawning occurring near the new and full moons. However this pattern was variable by year and location, likely resulting from different seasonal peaks in spawning by location. Gonadosomatic index (t = 2.41, p-value = 0.02) and spawning fraction (z = 2.92, p-value < 0.01) were both significantly higher in 2014 compared to 2013, suggesting annual variability in reproductive output. Participatory fishery monitoring proved successful in collecting biological needed for management and improved understanding of population reproductive variability.

Timing within the reproduction cycle modulates the efficiency of village-based crown-of-thorns starfish removal

In Pacific countries, outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci (COTS) raise increasing conservation concerns in areas where people heavily depend upon coral reefs for their livelihoods. Small-scale cleanups are often used in an attempt to regulate COTS densities, but their efficiency is challenged by knowledge gaps and the difficulty for the communities to frame their decisions in an ecological perspective. Here, we investigated COTS reproductive seasonality and its potential impact on removals. The spawning period of COTS was documented in two islands of the Vanuatu archipelago using the gonado-somatic index (GSI). Peak spawning occurred one month after the 28°C threshold was exceeded and was delayed by 2–3weeks with increasing latitude, theoretically allowing cleanups to be framed within the biological cycle. We demonstrated that subsampling of two/three arms per starfish provide GSI errors <1, a cost-effective strategy to document local spawning patterns. This approach was used during a major cleanup effort that took place during the spawning season, where fishermen removed COTS from a 3.8km fringing reef. The density drastically dropped from 518.8 to 66.7ind.ha−1 after participants extirpated >4 tons (13,000 starfish). At the end of the removals, GSI was reduced by half when compared to control areas, suggesting that traditional practices may under certain conditions trigger synchronized spawning. More effectively controlling COTS outbreaks will require teaching good ecological practices to avoid potential side-effects, a challenge in countries where a lack of knowledge on COTS does not really foster environmental concerns among local communities.

Characterising the spawning patterns of Jack Mackerel (Trachurus declivis) off eastern Australia to optimise future survey design

Estimates of spawning biomass obtained using the daily egg production method (DEPM) are used to establish catch limits for Jack Mackerel (Trachurus declivis) off eastern Australia. Information from concurrent ichthyoplankton and adult surveys conducted between Port Stephens, New South Wales and South East Cape, Tasmania during January 2014 was used to assess the environmental factors that determine the spawning patterns of Jack Mackerel. Adults were collected using a modified demersal trawl net deployed during daylight hours. Samples were unbiased with respect to sex, spawning activity and size. Large fish were collected from both the inner shelf and shelf break; spawning fractions and egg densities were high inshore and low offshore. These findings suggest complex spatio-temporal patterns of spawning, different to previous studies suggesting that most spawning occurred at the shelf break (∼200m). Eggs were most abundant in sea surface temperatures (SSTs) of 15–20°C and at depths of <130m. Future ichthyoplankton surveys should target waters with SSTs of 14–23°C and depths of 30–250m. Future adult surveys should sample the same range of depths and latitudes as the ichthyoplankton surveys and be structured as systematically as permitted by the availability of habitats suitable for demersal trawling. The DEPM does not provide information about the abundance of non-spawning adults outside the main spawning area. Extending future adult surveys beyond the spawning area would address this limitation by providing estimates of the distribution and relative abundance of adults across the entire range of the population. Findings of this study will help to improve the design of future DEPM surveys.

Reproduction in Female Stone Crabs (GenusMenippe) from Tampa Bay, Florida: Interannual, Seasonal, and Temperature-Related Variation

ABSTRACT Knowledge of short- and long-term reproductive patterns is basic for numerous types of biological, ecological, evolutionary, and fisheries studies. Using data from more than 22 y of sampling commercially valuable stone crabs (genus Menippe (Say, 1819)) in Tampa Bay, FL, we defined size-specific interannual and intra-annual patterns in ovarian development and spawning; explored relationships between the molting cycle and intra-annual patterns; and identified the influence of water temperature on those interrelationships. Frequency of gravid females (frequency-gravid) seemed to shift in multiyear cycles but frequency of ovigerous females (frequency-ovigerous) did not. Frequency-gravid and frequency-ovigerous increased with size class except in the largest females. Interannual variation in frequency-ovigerous was the product of multiple patterns differing principally between size-class-70 and -80 females and size-class-90 and -100+ females. Ovarian development, spawning, and molting in females of si...

The Role of Melatonin as a Hormone and an Antioxidant in the Control of Fish Reproduction.

Reproduction in most fish is seasonal or periodic, and the spawning occurs in an appropriate season to ensure maximum survival of the offspring. The sequence of reproductive events in an annual cycle is largely under the control of a species-specific endogenous timing system, which essentially relies on a well-equipped physiological response mechanism to changing environmental cues. The duration of solar light or photoperiod is one of the most predictable environmental signals used by a large number of animals including fish to coordinate their seasonal breeding. In vertebrates, the pineal gland is the major photoneuroendocrine part of the brain that rhythmically synthesizes and releases melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) into the circulation in synchronization with the environmental light–dark cycle. Past few decades witnessed an enormous progress in understanding the mechanisms by which melatonin regulates seasonal reproduction in fish and in other vertebrates. Most studies emphasized hormonal actions of melatonin through its high-affinity, pertussis toxin-sensitive G-protein (guanine nucleotide-binding protein)-coupled receptors on the hypothalamus–pituitary–gonad (HPG) axis of fish. However, the discovery that melatonin due to its lipophilic nature can easily cross the plasma membrane of all cells and may act as a potent scavenger of free radicals and stimulant of different antioxidants added a new dimension to the idea explaining mechanisms of melatonin actions in the regulation of ovarian functions. The basic concept on the actions of melatonin as an antioxidant emerged from mammalian studies. Recently, however, some new studies clearly suggested that melatonin, apart from playing the role of a hormone, may also be associated with the reduction in oxidative stress to augment ovarian functions during spawning. This review thus aims to bring together the current knowledge on the role of melatonin as a hormone as well as an antioxidant in the control of fish reproduction and shape the current working hypotheses supported by recent findings obtained in carp or based on knowledge gathered in mammalian and avian species. In essence, this review highlights potential actions of melatonin as a hormone in determining temporal pattern of spawning and as an antioxidant in regulating oocyte maturation at the downstream of HPG axis in fish.

ANTHROPOGENIC IMPACTS ON YELLOW-SPOTTED RIVER TURTLE Podocnemis unifilis (REPTILIA: PODOCNEMIDIDAE) FROM THE BRAZILIAN AMAZON

The purpuse of this study was to investigated the influence of anthropogenic impacts on Podocnemis unifilis nesting on a stretch from Falsino river, with two forest reserves, and one urban area on the Araguari river, state of Amapa, eastern Amazon (Brazil). A total of 180 nests were found, being 89.4 % in the forest reserves and only 10.6 % in urban areas. On Falsino river, we observed a spawning pattern, because the number of nests was correlated to the length and width of the nesting locations. On Araguari river, the P. unifilis nests were generally found in areas with surrounding vegetation up to 5 meters in height, minimum distance of 120 meters from residences and immediately or after places of higher exploration of pebbles. Females from Falsino river had smaller eggs, but the neonates were bigger and with higher body condition index than the neonates from Araguari river. About 80 % of the nests were prey, mostly because of the large collection of eggs for feeding. Furthermore, it was found that adult turtle hunting has been intense. Although one of the areas is in forest reserves, the human impacts were similar to those caused in urban areas, indicating the need to implement protection programs for the conservation of P. unifilis.

The effects of seasonal processes on size spectrum dynamics

The recent advent of dynamic size spectrum models has allowed the analysis of life processes in marine ecosystems to be carried out without the high complexity arising from interspecies interactions within dense food webs. In this paper, we use “mizer”, a size spectrum modelling framework, to investigate the consequences of including the seasonal processes of plankton blooms and batch spawning in the model dynamics. A multispecies size spectrum model is constructed using 12 common North Sea fish species, with growth, predation, and mortality explicitly modelled, before simulating both seasonal plankton blooms and batch spawning of fish (using empirical data on the spawning patterns of each species). The effect of seasonality on the community size spectrum is investigated; it is found that with seasonal processes included, the species spectra are more varied over time, while the aggregated community spectrum remains fairly similar. Growth of seasonally spawning mature individuals drops significantly during peak reproduction, although lifetime growth curves follow nonseasonal ones closely. On analysing properties of the community spectrum under different fishing scenarios, seasonality generally causes more varied spectrum slopes and lower yields. Under seasonal conditions, increasing fishing effort also results in greater temporal variability of fisheries yields due to truncation of the community spectrum towards smaller sizes. Further work is needed to evaluate robustness of management strategies in the context of a wider range of seasonal processes and behavioural strategies, as well as longer term environmental variability and change.

The codevelopment of coastal fisheries monitoring methods to support local management

Schemmel, E., A. M. Friedlander, P. Andrade, K. Keakealani, L. M. Castro, C. Wiggins, B. A. Wilcox, Y. Yasutake, and J. N. Kittinger. 2016. The codevelopment of coastal fisheries monitoring methods to support local management. Ecology and Society 21(4):34. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-08818-210434

Reproductive biology of the burrow dwelling goby Parapocryptes serperaster

The goby Parapocryptes serperaster is a bottom dweller fish widely distributed in monsoonal regions in Asia, but its reproductive biology is poorly understood. This study assessed important variables associated with P. serperaster reproduction through monthly field collection and histological analysis in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam over a year. This goby species is a multiple spawner as the ovaries contained oocytes at different developmental stages during the spawning season, coinciding with the spawning period in the wet season. Peak spawning occurred in September when the gonadosomatic index was close to the highest value. This goby shows sexual dimorphism in body size, and the average size at first sex maturation was 15.8 cm total length in the female and 16.3 cm in the male. Fish reproduction was characterised by high variation of fecundity and heterogeneous size of eggs in the ovary, indicating a possible adaptation to the monsoonal region. This study provides new understanding on the spawning pattern and reproductive biology of P. serperaster living in the mud flat habitat in tropical monsoon climate.

Spatio-temporal spawning patterns of two riverine populations of the threatened Macquarie perch (Macquaria australasica)

Understanding species-reproduction dynamics is vital for the management of riverine fish. Information on the spawning ecology of the endangered Australian Macquarie perch (Macquaria australasica) is based largely on data gathered from lacustrine populations, with uncertainty on the applicability such data has for managing riverine populations. The current study presents a first description of spawning patterns of two riverine populations of Macquarie perch in Victoria, Australia, using egg counts recorded across multiple sites and periods within the species core spawning window. Spawning intensity was highly variable between study sites, with 96 and 82% of eggs collected from a single site in the King Parrot Creek and Yarra River respectively. We also found a strong positive association between spawning and water temperature. Our results provide an important account of spatio-temporal spawning patterns of riverine Macquarie perch populations and lend some support for the transfer of information from lacustrine populations (as demonstrated by spawning habitat and temperature association). Although the spatial and temporal constraints of the present study must be considered, the results provide opportunity for further testing of the environmental effects, and management options aimed at enhancing spawning of this endangered species.

Influence of Environmental Factors on Spawning of the American Horseshoe Crab (Limulus polyphemus) in the Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire, USA

The Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire, USA is near the northern distribution limit of the American horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus). This estuary has few ideal beaches for spawning, yet it supports a modest population of horseshoe crabs. There is no organized monitoring program in the Great Bay Estuary, so it is unclear when and where spawning occurs. In this 2-year study (May through June, 2012 and 2013), >5,000 adult horseshoe crabs were counted at four sites in the estuary. The greatest densities of horseshoe crabs were observed at Great Bay sites in the upper, warmer reaches of the estuary. Peaks of spawning activity were not strongly correlated with the times of the new or full moons, and similar numbers of horseshoe crabs were observed mating during daytime and nighttime high tides. While many environmental factors are likely to influence the temporal and spatial patterns of spawning in this estuary, temperature appears to have the most profound impact.

Varying annual patterns of reproduction in four species of coral reef fish in a monsoonal environment

Peaks in the reproduction of coral reef fish in equatorial regions are hypothesised to usually coincide with periods of the year when winds are weaker, presumably to minimise larval transport and maximise recruitment. The annual patterns of spawning of four species of reef fish in the central Philippines (9.201355°N, 123.327421°E) were investigated over 11–22 months. On an annual basis, the study area experiences two windy monsoon seasons and two monsoon transition periods when winds are weaker. Protracted breeding seasons were evident, but the timing of inferred spawning peaks varied among species. Spawning peaks of Pterocaesio pisang (Caesionidae) coincided with the first monsoon transition period of the year (April–June) and the north-east monsoon (November–March). Caesio caerulaurea (Caesionidae) showed a spawning peak during the south-west monsoon (July–September) extending to the following monsoon transition period (October). In Naso minor (Acanthuridae), an annual pattern was difficult to discern due to insufficient data, but there was some suggestion of higher spawning activity during the north-east monsoon. Spawning in Pomacentrus moluccensis (Pomacentridae) was inferred to occur year-round except during the north-east monsoon. These results suggest that conditions favourable to the survival of pelagic larvae are not restricted to monsoon transition periods. Alternatively, the results indicate direct or indirect effects of temperature, rainfall, wind or wave action on the reproduction of adults. Variable annual patterns of reproduction in reef fish pose a further challenge to fisheries management interventions in the region. This variability is possibly being influenced in complex ways by environmental factors that change with the monsoons.

Monitoring Spawning Activity in a Southern California Marine Protected Area Using Molecular Identification of Fish Eggs.

In order to protect the diverse ecosystems of coastal California, a series of marine protected areas (MPAs) have been established. The ability of these MPAs to preserve and potentially enhance marine resources can only be assessed if these habitats are monitored through time. This study establishes a baseline for monitoring the spawning activity of fish in the MPAs adjacent to Scripps Institution of Oceanography (La Jolla, CA, USA) by sampling fish eggs from the plankton. Using vertical plankton net tows, 266 collections were made from the Scripps Pier between 23 August 2012 and 28 August 2014; a total of 21,269 eggs were obtained. Eggs were identified using DNA barcoding: the COI or 16S rRNA gene was amplified from individual eggs and sequenced. All eggs that were successfully sequenced could be identified from a database of molecular barcodes of California fish species, resulting in species-level identification of 13,249 eggs. Additionally, a surface transport model of coastal circulation driven by current maps from high frequency radar was used to construct probability maps that estimate spawning locations that gave rise to the collected eggs. These maps indicated that currents usually come from the north but water parcels tend to be retained within the MPA; eggs sampled at the Scripps Pier have a high probability of having been spawned within the MPA. The surface transport model also suggests that although larvae have a high probability of being retained within the MPA, there is also significant spillover into nearby areas outside the MPA. This study provides an important baseline for addressing the extent to which spawning patterns of coastal California species may be affected by future changes in the ocean environment.

Coral reproduction on the world’s southernmost reef at Lord Howe Island, Australia

Despite a recent expansion in the geographic extent of coral reproductive research, there remain many regions in the Indo-Pacific where knowledge is limited. For example, Lord Howe Island is the southernmost reef system in the world (31°S); however, very little is known of the reproductive biology of the coral fauna. Here, aspects of the reproductive biology and the timing of reproduction for 40 of the approximately 65 species that occur on Lord Howe Island are documented. In December 2010, field assessments of the stage of gamete maturity in Acropora spp. colonies suggested that 5 species spawned in December 2010 and 11 in January 2011. In January 2012, similar sampling suggested that 12 Acropora species spawned in January and 1 in February. In addition, 11 species from 10 genera broadcast spawned gametes from 17:30 to 24:00 h in January 2012, 10 to 12 d after full moon. Goniastrea favulus was inferred to spawn prior to 17:00 h, 6 to 12 d after full moon and Porites heronensis released brooded larvae. The reproductive biology of 3 other brooding species was examined using dissections and histology monthly for 1 yr from April 2011. Of these, Seriatopora hystrix contained planulae between November 2011 and March 2012, Stylophora pistillata contained planulae between November 2011 and February 2012. No eggs or planulae were observed in Pocillopora damicornis. In conclusion, the spawning patterns on Lord Howe Island are consistent with other locations in the Indo-Pacific: multi-species synchronous spawning episodes occur after full moons, when water temperatures are relatively high.