Spatial Recall Tasks Research Articles

Recall initiation instructions influence how space and time interact in memory.

Recent work has examined the interaction between space and time in memory search, but there is still limited understanding of this relationship. Here, we test the hypothesis that individuals can exert control over how time and space interact in response to subtle differences in task instructions. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed two experiments where participants completed two immediate free recall tasks, a verbal task involving words presented at a central location and a spatial task involving squares presented at different locations. Some participants were free to recall the words or locations spontaneously in any order they preferred. In contrast, another group was subtly biased toward temporal information by instructions to begin recall from the last presented item before recalling the remaining items in any order they wished. Replicating recent work, all conditions showed clear evidence that recall was organized along both the temporal and the spatial dimensions. Extending this work, we found that the subtle change in recall instructions increased the reliance on temporal information in the spatial recall task. Correlational analyses suggest that spatial and temporal information do not compete when participants search memory spontaneously. However, they do compete when instructions favor temporal information. These findings highlight that individuals can exert some cognitive control over how associative dimensions interact during memory search and emphasize the importance of incorporating such processes into theoretical models.

Searching in the sand: Protracted video deficit in U.S. preschoolers' spatial recall using a continuous search space.

Young children exhibit a video deficit for spatial recall, learning less from on-screen than in-person demonstrations. Some theoretical accounts emphasize memory constraints (e.g., insufficient retrieval cues, competition between memory representations). Such accounts imply memory representations are graded, yet video deficit studies measuring spatial recall operationalize memory retrieval as dichotomous (success or failure). The current study tested a graded-representation account using a spatial recall task with a continuous search space (i.e., sandbox) rather than discrete locations. With this more sensitive task, a protracted video deficit for spatial recall was found in children 4-5years old (n=51). This may be due to weaker memory representations in the screen condition, evidenced by higher variability and greater perseverative bias. In general, perseverative bias decreased with repeated trials. The discussion considers how the results support a graded-representation account, potentially explaining why children might exhibit a video deficit in some tasks but not others. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The task used a continuous search space (sandbox), making it more difficult and sensitive than spatial recall tasks used in prior video deficit research. Spatial recall among 4- and 5-year-old children was more variable after watching hiding events on screen via live video feed than through a window. Children's spatial recall from screens was more susceptible to proactive interference, evidenced by more perseverative bias in an A-not-B design. The results demonstrate memory representations blend experiences that accumulate over time and explain why the video deficit may be protracted for more difficult tasks.

Examining the role of external language support and children’s own language use in spatial development

This research investigated whether an experimental manipulation providing children with external language support reflects developmental processes whereby children come to use language within spatial tasks. A total of 121 3- to 6-year-old children participated in language production and spatial recall tasks. The Production task measured children’s task-relevant descriptions of spatial relations on the testing array. The Recall task assessed children’s delayed search for hidden object locations on the testing array relative to one or more spatial reference frames (egocentric, room-centered, and intrinsic). During the Recall task, the experimenter provided children with either descriptive or nondescriptive verbal cues. Results showed that children’s task-relevant language production improved with age and the effects of language support on spatial performance decreased with age. However, children’s production of task-relevant language did not account for effects of language support. Instead, children benefited from language support irrespective of their task-relevant language production. These results suggest that verbal encoding is not a spontaneous process that young children use in support of their spatial performance. In addition, experimental manipulations of language support are not fully reflective of the ways in which children come to use language within spatial tasks.

Spatial Learning in a Virtual Environment: The Role of Self-Efficacy Feedback and Individual Visuospatial Factors.

We examined the roles self-efficacy plays in environmental learning in terms of self-efficacy feedback and task-specific (navigation-based) self-efficacy. We manipulated self-efficacy using positive and neutral feedback to investigate the relationship between receiving positive feedback and environmental learning performance and subsequent recall. A total of 231 participants were administered visuospatial tasks, where 117 received positive feedback, and 114 received neutral feedback. Then, we tested environmental learning using route retracing, pointing, and map-completion tasks. Before each environmental task, participants evaluated their task-specific self-efficacy. A series of spatial self-reported preferences were gathered as well. Mediation models showed that receiving positive feedback after a visuospatial task influences environmental recall performance through the mediation of task-specific self-efficacy. Moreover, after accounting for experimental manipulation and gender, we found that task-specific self-efficacy, sense of direction, and visuospatial abilities influence spatial-recall task performance, even with some differences as a function of the specific recall tasks considered. Overall, our findings suggest that among individual characteristics, task-specific self-efficacy can sustain environmental learning. Furthermore, giving positive feedback can improve spatial self-efficacy before conducting spatial-recall tasks.

The influence of environmental context on spatial learning. Openness of the environment and spatial mental representations in the city of Venice

Field of view (FOV) allows us to perceive and learn our environment. Reducing the visual field impairs our ability to estimate distance and direction. It has been demonstrated that distance is estimated more accurately in outdoor environment (a lawn) than in indoors (hallway or lobby). This evidence suggests that features like width of environment, that is the openness of the environment that extends into periphery, might be important in affecting spatial representation. We studied route learning in Venice where features may or may not restrict the width of environment. Seventy participants learned narrow and wide routes from videos, then performed various spatial recall tasks. Results showed that environmental features that restricted the width of environment impaired participants’ pointing performance, and the metric properties of their mental representations. This study newly shows that environmental features naturally restricting the width of environment can influence the ability to form spatial mental representations.

The Difficulty of Effectively Using Allocentric Prior Information in a Spatial Recall Task

Prior information represents the long-term statistical structure of an environment. For example, colds develop more often than throat cancer, making the former a more likely diagnosis for a sore throat. There is ample evidence for effective use of prior information during a variety of perceptual tasks, including the ability to recall locations using an egocentric (self-based) frame. However, it is not yet known if people can use prior information effectively when using an allocentric (world-based) frame. Forty-eight adults were shown sixty sets of three target locations in a sparse virtual environment with three beacons. The targets were drawn from one of four prior distributions. They were then asked to point to the targets after a delay and a change in perspective. While searches were biased towards the beacons, we did not find any evidence that participants successfully exploited the prior distributions of targets. These results suggest that allocentric reasoning does not conform to normative Bayesian models: we saw no evidence for use of priors in our cognitively-complex (allocentric) task, unlike in previous, simpler (egocentric) recall tasks. It is possible that this reflects the high biological cost of processing precise allocentric information.

Supporting route learning in older adults: the role of imagery strategy

Objectives Route learning is an everyday spatial ability important to individuals’ independent living, and is known to decline with age. This study aimed to investigate the benefit of using an imagery strategy to support route learning in young and older adults. Methods Forty young adults and 40 older adults learned a path from a video. Twenty of each age group were taught to use an imagery strategy (strategy groups [SGs]), while the others received no specific instructions (control groups [CGs]). Then participants were asked to recall the order and location of landmarks they had seen along the path (landmark ordering and locating tasks). Results Young adults recalled the order and location of landmarks better than older adults, and the SGs outperformed the CGs regardless of age. The Age group x Learning group interaction was only significant for the landmark locating task, with the young CG performing better than the older CG, while the older SG proved as good at recalling landmark locations as the young SG. Further, it was only among the older adults that the SG outperformed the CG. Conclusion These findings newly suggest that using imagery helps to sustain older adults’ route learning ability, especially in spatial recall tasks demanding the active manipulation of spatial information learnt, such as locating landmarks previously encountered while navigating a path. These results are discussed within the aging and spatial cognition frameworks.

Spatial description learning in preschoolers: The role of perspective and individual factors

Preschoolers’ ability to form mental spatial models derived from descriptions, and their individual skills in relation to these models have been scarcely examined. The present study examines preschoolers’ ability to mentally represent environments based on verbal descriptions from a survey perspective (i.e. landmark locations presented from an aerial view) or route perspective (i.e. a path along which landmarks are encountered from a person’s point of view), and the relationship with the children’s verbal and visuo-spatial abilities. Sixty-three five- to six-year-old children were enrolled. They listened to survey and route descriptions. Then they were assessed on landmark recognition and spatial recall with a landmark location task. Results suggested that these preschoolers could effectively learn environmental information and perform spatial recall tasks well above the chance level, with negligible differences in the survey and route conditions. Vocabulary and mental rotation accuracy were individual measures significantly associated with landmark location accuracy.

Restoration of fMRI Decodability Does Not Imply Latent Working Memory States.

Recent imaging studies have challenged the prevailing view that working memory is mediated by sustained neural activity. Using machine learning methods to reconstruct memory content, these studies found that previously diminished representations can be restored by retrospective cueing or other forms of stimulation. These findings have been interpreted as evidence for an activity-silent working memory state that can be reactivated dependent on task demands. Here, we test the validity of this conclusion by formulating a neural process model of working memory based on sustained activity and using this model to emulate a spatial recall task with retro-cueing. The simulation reproduces both behavioral and fMRI results previously taken as evidence for latent states, in particular the restoration of spatial reconstruction quality following an informative cue. Our results demonstrate that recovery of the decodability of an imaging signal does not provide compelling evidence for an activity-silent working memory state.

The relation between working memory and language comprehension in signers and speakers

This study investigated the relation between linguistic and spatial working memory (WM) resources and language comprehension for signed compared to spoken language. Sign languages are both linguistic and visual-spatial, and therefore provide a unique window on modality-specific versus modality-independent contributions of WM resources to language processing. Deaf users of American Sign Language (ASL), hearing monolingual English speakers, and hearing ASL-English bilinguals completed several spatial and linguistic serial recall tasks. Additionally, their comprehension of spatial and non-spatial information in ASL and spoken English narratives was assessed. Results from the linguistic serial recall tasks revealed that the often reported advantage for speakers on linguistic short-term memory tasks does not extend to complex WM tasks with a serial recall component. For English, linguistic WM predicted retention of non-spatial information, and both linguistic and spatial WM predicted retention of spatial information. For ASL, spatial WM predicted retention of spatial (but not non-spatial) information, and linguistic WM did not predict retention of either spatial or non-spatial information. Overall, our findings argue against strong assumptions of independent domain-specific subsystems for the storage and processing of linguistic and spatial information and furthermore suggest a less important role for serial encoding in signed than spoken language comprehension.

Increased distractibility in schizotypy: Independent of individual differences in working memory capacity?

Individuals with schizophrenia typically show increased levels of distractibility. This has been attributed to impaired working memory capacity (WMC), since lower WMC is typically associated with higher distractibility, and schizophrenia is typically associated with impoverished WMC. Here, participants performed verbal and spatial serial recall tasks that were accompanied by to-be-ignored speech tokens. For the few trials wherein one speech token was replaced with a different token, impairment was produced to task scores (a deviation effect). Participants subsequently completed a schizotypy questionnaire and a WMC measure. Higher schizotypy scores were associated with lower WMC (as measured with operation span, OSPAN), but WMC and schizotypy scores explained unique variance in relation to the mean magnitude of the deviation effect. These results suggest that schizotypy is associated with heightened domain-general distractibility, but that this is independent of its relationship with WMC.

Spatio-Temporal Structure, Path Characteristics, and Perceptual Grouping in Immediate Serial Spatial Recall.

Immediate serial spatial recall measures the ability to retain sequences of locations in short-term memory and is considered the spatial equivalent of digit span. It is tested by requiring participants to reproduce sequences of movements performed by an experimenter or displayed on a monitor. Different organizational factors dramatically affect serial spatial recall but they are often confounded or underspecified. Untangling them is crucial for the characterization of working-memory models and for establishing the contribution of structure and memory capacity to spatial span. We report five experiments assessing the relative role and independence of factors that have been reported in the literature. Experiment 1 disentangled the effects of spatial clustering and path-length by manipulating the distance of items displayed on a touchscreen monitor. Long-path sequences segregated by spatial clusters were compared with short-path sequences not segregated by clusters. Recall was more accurate for sequences segregated by clusters independently from path-length. Experiment 2 featured conditions where temporal pauses were introduced between or within cluster boundaries during the presentation of sequences with the same paths. Thus, the temporal structure of the sequences was either consistent or inconsistent with a hierarchical representation based on segmentation by spatial clusters but the effect of structure could not be confounded with effects of path-characteristics. Pauses at cluster boundaries yielded more accurate recall, as predicted by a hierarchical model. In Experiment 3, the systematic manipulation of sequence structure, path-length, and presence of path-crossings of sequences showed that structure explained most of the variance, followed by the presence/absence of path-crossings, and path-length. Experiments 4 and 5 replicated the results of the previous experiments in immersive virtual reality navigation tasks where the viewpoint of the observer changed dynamically during encoding and recall. This suggested that the effects of structure in spatial span are not dependent on perceptual grouping processes induced by the aerial view of the stimulus array typically afforded by spatial recall tasks. These results demonstrate the independence of coding strategies based on structure from effects of path characteristics and perceptual grouping in immediate serial spatial recall.

Testing a dynamic-field account of interactions between spatial attention and spatial working memory.

Studies examining the relationship between spatial attention and spatial working memory (SWM) have shown that discrimination responses are faster for targets appearing at locations that are being maintained in SWM, and that location memory is impaired when attention is withdrawn during the delay. These observations support the proposal that sustained attention is required for successful retention in SWM: If attention is withdrawn, memory representations are likely to fail, increasing errors. In the present study, this proposal was reexamined in light of a neural-process model of SWM. On the basis of the model's functioning, we propose an alternative explanation for the observed decline in SWM performance when a secondary task is performed during retention: SWM representations drift systematically toward the location of targets appearing during the delay. To test this explanation, participants completed a color discrimination task during the delay interval of a spatial-recall task. In the critical shifting-attention condition, the color stimulus could appear either toward or away from the midline reference axis, relative to the memorized location. We hypothesized that if shifting attention during the delay leads to the failure of SWM representations, there should be an increase in the variance of recall errors, but no change in directional errors, regardless of the direction of the shift. Conversely, if shifting attention induces drift of SWM representations-as predicted by the model-systematic changes in the patterns of spatial-recall errors should occur that would depend on the direction of the shift. The results were consistent with the latter possibility-recall errors were biased toward the locations of discrimination targets appearing during the delay.

Map learning in young and older adults: The influence of perceived stereotype threat

This study aimed to analyze whether social factors such as perceived stereotype threat can influence spatial recall in aging. Thirty-four young, 34 young-old and 34 old-old adults studied a map and then performed spatial recall tasks (pointing, a verification task and map drawing) and completed a questionnaire measuring their perceived stereotype threat concerning spatial skills declining with age. Results showed a worse spatial recall performance in both the older groups (young-old and old-old) than in the young adult group. In the map-drawing task, the age effect was also mediated by the perceived stereotype threat. Overall, these findings indicate that perceived stereotype threat mediates the relationship between age and map learning, depending on the type of spatial recall task used.

Learning multiple lists at the same time in the Hebb repetition effect.

In short-term ordered recall, when 1 list of items is repeated over the course of the experiment, recall performance typically improves. This is known as the Hebb repetition effect (Hebb, 1961). In the present study, we contrasted the typical condition involving a single repeated sequence with concurrent learning of 2 repeated sequences. Participants performed a spatial recall task, in which sequences of 7 dots were presented in each trial. For a given participant, the location of the dots were the same for all trials. Presentation order of dots varied randomly, except for 1 or 2 particular series that were repeated every 4 trials. Results revealed a significant learning slope for both the single and dual list conditions and learning was as efficient in both conditions. The findings provide further evidence in support of models linking the Hebb repetition effect to word-form learning.

The role of visuo-spatial abilities in recall of spatial descriptions: A mediation model

This research investigates how visuo-spatial abilities (such as mental rotation — MR — and visuo-spatial working memory — VSWM —) work together to influence the recall of environmental descriptions. We tested a mediation model in which VSWM was assumed to mediate the relationship between MR and spatial text recall. First, 120 participants were assessed for MR and working memory (both visuo-spatial and verbal) abilities. Participants then listened to spatial descriptions and performed spatial recall tasks. The expected model was verified, indicating that it is possible to define an order for how visuo-spatial abilities modulate environmental learning, with MR as a predictor and VSWM as a mediator.

Component analysis of verbal versus spatial working memory training in adolescents with ADHD: A randomized, controlled trial

Adaptive training of working memory (WM) using the Cogmed-RM intervention has recently shown some efficacy as an alternative treatment for ADHD, but this intervention may not be optimally designed. A recent component analysis of WM has suggested that maintenance in primary memory (PM) appears to be largely intact whereas recall from secondary memory (SM) appears to be deficient in ADHD relative to age-matched controls. However, extrapolating from basic research, there is reason to believe that Cogmed-RM may target the PM component more than the SM component; though training with spatial exercises may target the SM component more than training with verbal exercises. To investigate, participants diagnosed with ADHD were randomly assigned to either a verbal training condition (n = 24) or a spatial training condition (n = 23) using a randomized, controlled design, and both groups were instructed to complete at least 20 days of training. The PM and SM components of WM were assessed immediately before and after training using both verbal and spatial free recall tasks. The main findings showed that both versions of the intervention enhanced the maintenance of information in PM regardless of test modality, but not the recall of information from SM. Therefore, the component of WM that is improved by Cogmed-RM is not the same component of WM that is deficient in ADHD.

Visuospatial working memory impairment in current and previous ecstasy/polydrug users

Previous research suggests that ecstasy users are impaired in processing visuospatial information. However, for the most part, the deficits observed appear to involve the recall and recognition of complex visual and geometric patterns. The present research sought to determine whether ecstasy use was associated with deficits in serial spatial recall and visuospatial working memory (VSWM). Thirty-eight current ecstasy/polydrug users, 16 previous ecstasy/polydrug users and 52 non ecstasy users completed serial simple spatial recall and VSWM tasks. Both the current and previous users of ecstasy exhibited deficits on the VSWM task. Following controls for group differences in aspects of cannabis and cocaine use, the overall group effect fell to just below statistical significance. However, the difference contrast comparing users with nonusers continued to demonstrate a statistically significant ecstasy-related VSWM deficit. Ecstasy users were impaired in processing visuospatial information especially under conditions of high processing demand. The results are consistent with ecstasy-related impairment either in the short-term posterior parietal and occipital area store or the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex processes, which augment it under conditions of higher processing demands. Further research is needed to pinpoint the actual source of the ecstasy/polydrug-related VSWM deficits that have been observed here and elsewhere.

Virtual/Real Transfer of Spatial Knowledge: Benefit from Visual Fidelity Provided in a Virtual Environment and Impact of Active Navigation

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect the visual fidelity of a virtual environment (VE) (undetailed vs. detailed) has on the transfer of spatial knowledge based on the navigation mode (passive vs. active) for three different spatial recall tasks (wayfinding, sketch mapping, and picture sorting). Sixty-four subjects (32 men and 32 women) participated in the experiment. Spatial learning was evaluated by these three tasks in the context of the Bordeaux district. In the wayfinding task, the results indicated that the detailed VE helped subjects to transfer their spatial knowledge from the VE to the real world, irrespective of the navigation mode. In the sketch-mapping task, the detailed VE increased performances compared to the undetailed VE condition, and allowed subjects to benefit from the active navigation. In the sorting task, performances were better in the detailed VE; however, in the undetailed version of the VE, active learning either did not help the subjects or it even deteriorated their performances. These results are discussed in terms of appropriate perceptive-motor and/or spatial representations for each spatial recall task.

Spatial mental representations derived from survey and route descriptions: When individuals prefer extrinsic frame of reference

The present research investigates the role of individual differences in preference for adopting extrinsic frame of reference (EFR) in ability to represent mentally spatial information learned through survey and route descriptions. A sample of 191 participants (100 females and 91 males) was categorized as four groups with high (H-EFR), medium-high (MH-EFR), medium-low (ML-EFR) and low (L-EFR) preference. The groups listened to two spatial descriptions in survey and route perspectives, subsequently performing true/false verification and map drawing tasks. They also performed a number of visuo-spatial, verbal and geographical pointing tasks. Results showed a general better performance of the H-EFR group and of males – in comparison with lower-ability counterparts and females respectively – in spatial text recall tasks and in other spatial measures. Moreover, spatial ability interacts with text perspective: in verification test the H-EFR group outperformed the lower groups in survey and route inferential sentences and in map drawing the superiority of H-EFR group was shown with survey (but not with route) text. Overall, the results suggest that individuals with high preference for extrinsic frame of reference are able to manage environment information in both spatial perspectives even if they prefer to express it in survey format. That preference is specifically sustained by spatial abilities.