Spatial Equity Research Articles

THE LOCATIONAL MEASURE IN THE PLANNING OF QARIAH MOSQUES

Public facilities are vital to contributing positively to people’s quality of life. Facilities play an important role in cities by providing public services to communities. Therefore, planning equitable public facilities is crucial for planners to ensure that every citizen has equal access to the planned public facilities. Scholars have conducted various studies to assess the location and distribution of public facilities. Spatial equity is one aspect of locational measures used by scholars to determine the accessibility and spatial distribution of facilities in relation to the user’s location. Previous studies by researchers have focused on public facilities such as medical facilities, parks, and schools. However, there have been limited studies that evaluate the spatial equity of religious facilities such as mosques. Therefore, this study attempts to assess the location of qariah mosques (mosques of local jurisdiction) based on the spatial equity concept by measuring their spatial distribution and accessibility. The present study utilised a Geographical Information System (GIS) and used descriptive and statistical analyses to examine the spatial equity of 418 mosques in Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. GIS data was collected for this study, which includes mosques, populations, and mukim (township or sub-district) boundaries. The study used aggregated data from the population to identify the spatial pattern and spatial distribution of accessibility to mosques. The data was analysed using the container index and local indicators of spatial association (LISA) to assess the accessibility and spatial equity. This method utilised GIS capabilities to explore the spatial relationship between mosques and population characteristics. By adopting this approach, the findings of the study will reveal communities with limited accessibility to mosques.

Tingkat Keadilan Spasial dalam Fasilitas Kesehatan untuk Penanganan Covid-19 Di Provinsi Jawa Tengah

Equity is an aspect that must be considered so that the impacts and objectives of development can provide benefits to the entire community. Equity cannot be separated from the spatial context, especially if it refers to the distribution, especially main public facilities that are widely used by the community, such as education and health facilities. Failure to create equity in the distribution of public facilities can create spatial disparities, an issue that if allowed to occur can lead to inequality of welfare and unsustainability. This problem has been increasingly exposed since the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic, which spreads disproportionately and the greatest impact is suffered by people with social economic disadvantage and other vulnerable populations. The case of COVID-19 in Central Java Province is one of the worst in Indonesia and its distribution tends to be uneven which can be caused by the occurrence of spatial disparities in health facility services. This study identifies the level of spatial equity obtained from public perception which is then analyzed by scoring method using a Likert scale. Of the 4 indicators used to measure spatial equality, the indicator of ease of access to health facilities gets the highest score, followed by health facilities adequacy, quality of service, and the lowest is procedural/administrative ease. The results also show that the level of spatial equity in city tends to be higher than in regency.

A user-based approach for assessing spatial equity of attractiveness and accessibility to alternative urban parks

ABSTRACT Spatial equity in access to urban services is a significant element of sustainable urban planning. To date, a service-based index is used to measure service attractiveness, considering attractiveness as a static concept. While from the user side view, service attractiveness is a dynamic concept related to the variation of different opportunities of users to use the services and capacities. In this paper, a user-based method for measuring service attractiveness is proposed. In this approach, the attractiveness of service for a user is modeled as a function of the user’s Travel Times (TT), Free Times (FTs), park size and relative positions of the user, local demanding population, and service. Then, the inequity of attractiveness of services for different users has been examined using three inequity indices including the Duration of Use (DU), Frequency of Visit (FV), and the Chance of Space Choice (CSC). The proposed method is applied to urban regional parks of Tehran municipality. Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZs) and regional parks are respectively regarded as the users and services. In addition to considering inequity of access to the first closest park, the additional cost of accessing to the other two closest parks is also considered. Results show that the proposed method leads to the exploration of the existing inequities of DU, FV, and CSC among residents in local scales, whereas in the service-based method, all users of a service are highlighted with a single value of attractiveness. Comparison of the user-based and service-based attractiveness indices show significant differences. As an example, user-based attractiveness values of about 14% and 20% of TAZs are respectively 5 and 3 square meters more than that of the service-based attractiveness index. However, the service-based method is suitable for regional-scale comparison of the inequities. Therefore, the proposed index can complement the service-based index for inequity mapping and management in varying scales.

Extending floating catchment area methods to estimate future hospital bed capacity requirements

A new hospital in north-west Sydney, Australia is to start construction in the year 2023. However, the number of emergency department beds/treatment spaces (EDBs) that it will contain is yet to be determined, as this region is expected to have relatively high population growth from year 2021 to year 2036. In this paper, floating catchment area (FCA) methods were employed to estimate the required number of EDBs for this new hospital.Metrics including spatial accessibility index and spatial equity were calculated based on the predicted populations for 2021 and 2036 using government sourced data. Specifically, potential spatial accessibility and horizontal spatial equity were employed for this paper.Mathematical optimisation was used to determine the most efficient distribution of EDBs throughout different hospitals in this region in 2036. The best allocation of capacity across the study area that simultaneously improved average spatial accessibility and improved spatial equity relative to the metrics of 2021 was found.Traditional methods of healthcare planning seldom consider the spatial location of populations or the travel cost to hospitals. This paper presents a novel method to how capacity of future services are determined due to population growth. These results can be compared to traditional methods to access the validity of the methods outlined in this paper.

Uncovering spatiotemporal pattern and geographical equity of pharmacies in Chinese cities from 2008 to 2018

ObjectivesSpatial equity is one of the essential indicators to measure service capacity of pharmacies. Previous studies have measured spatial equity of pharmacies by comparing pharmacy density, without explicitly incorporating any measures of spatial dimension. Data used in the past made it difficult to investigate pharmacies comprehensively within large geopolitical units, and was also untimely. Therefore, this study attempts to construct a pharmacy density index that takes into account a spatial dimension to investigate the geographical equity of pharmacies, supported by big data. MethodsWe constructed a Pharmacy Density Index (PDI) based on the Health Resource Density Index (HRDI). Based on 66,143 pharmacies' Points of Interest (POI), we used a pharmacy-population ratio and PDI to investigate spatiotemporal patterns of pharmacies in China. ResultsOur results indicated that POI effectively mitigates difficulties in data acquisition, and is suitable for surveys within large geographic boundaries. PDI integrates both population distribution and geographic distribution, showing great potential to assess spatial equity of medical facilities. Furthermore, the results indicated that from 2008–2018 the number of pharmacies per 10,000 residents increased from 0.5 to 3, with more than 85% of cities meeting or exceeding the standard recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO). However, we also observed regional inequalities in terms of spatial distribution characteristics of pharmacies. ConclusionWe recommend that policymakers should apply PDI to measure local medical service capacity and use multiple sources of data to better triangulate and evaluate the equity of pharmacies.

Spatial disparity and structural inequality in disability patterns across Tianjin municipality: A multiple deprivation perspective

Reducing the spatial disparities and structural inequalities faced by disabled people is a global challenge in both developed and developing countries that requires an understanding of disability-driven deprivation. This study aims to develop and validate a conceptual framework for analysing the structural inequality and spatial disparity of disability-related deprivation. To achieve this goal, an Index of Disability-Related Multiple Deprivation (IDMD) based on six specific domains, including employment, education, marital status, health, services and barrier-free environments, is proposed. The IDMD was calculated at the sub-district level within the Tianjin municipality using aggregated registration information from the Tianjin Disability Database in 2020. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to assign the weight of each indicator of IDMD. Moran I and LISA analysis were used to quantify the spatial disparity of IDMD across the municipality. Multi-Scale Geographically Weighted Regression (MGWR) was used to model the structural factors shaping the spatial disparity of disability-related deprivation in terms of gender, age, and disability types. Three key findings have been generated as follows. The spatial variability of IDMD revealed significant urban-rural disparity across the municipality, highlighting the difficulties faced by vulnerable and disadvantaged disabled people in rural areas. Men, working age groups and those with intellectual disability contributed most to the structural inequalities of IDMD. Thirdly, the location of greatest deprivation varied for different groups; working age groups faced the highest levels of deprivation in the urban centre, males faced the most deprivation in the urban fringe and those with intellectual, limb, visual, speech or mental disabilities were most deprived in rural areas. These findings reflect the complexity of structural factors affecting disability-related deprivation at the municipality scale. This study points to the need for informed, targeted welfare facilities planning and management strategies to improve spatial equity and social justice for disabled people.

Assessing equity in public transportation in an Indian city

Equitable distribution of public transportation services is one of the Sustainable Development Goals. An evaluation of the need for and access to public transportation is therefore necessary to enable an equitable allocation of resources for the same. This paper evaluates spatial equity in the network of metro feeder buses in the city of Bengaluru in India. This network acts as the first and last-mile commuting mode for the metro lines. Accessibility of the metro feeder network from “points of interest” is measured using the Public Transportation Accessibility Index and the need for public transportation, differentiated across socio-economic groups, is estimated using the Public Transportation Need Index. The horizontal and vertical equity, which quantitatively represent the spatial distribution of metro feeder buses with respect to the transportation need, are then calculated. The results suggest access and need are well balanced in the existing metro and feeder bus network, with the exception of some areas. However, a similar analysis of the upcoming phases of the metro network highlights the specific areas in the city that will need urgent attention if access to the mass transportation services offered by the metro is to be equitable. This paper demonstrates a method to include the principles of equity in transportation planning and also a method to evaluate it in existing networks.

Research on the Equity of Educational Facilities in Counties of the Loess Plateau Gully Area: Chengcheng County, Shaanxi Province as an Example

In this study, we construct a framework to evaluate the equity of educational facilities in counties in the Loess Plateau ravine area according to three dimensions: “equity in supply and demand”, “spatial justice”, and “equity in quality educational resources”. In this study, we use the improved MEAP model (Maximal Accessibility Equality Problem) to evaluate the equity of educational facilities in Chengcheng County, Shaanxi Province, China. The results of the study show that (1) The shortage of educational facilities in the county in terms of supply and demand gradually changes from an uneven distribution of educational facilities in terms of quantity to an uneven distribution of educational facilities in terms of quality. The demand and supply of education in the county are out of balance with the population movement in the process of rapid urbanization, and the rate of urbanization of education is higher than the rate of urbanization of the population. (2) The spatial equity of educational facilities in the county is poor, with the geographical separation caused by gullies and the uneven development between urban and rural areas being the main causes. (3) The distribution of quality educational facilities within the county is uneven, with the central city being rich in quality educational resources but having limited room for expansion of facilities. Educational facilities in the peripheral areas of the county are relatively poor. These research results provide a new perspective and evaluation framework to assess the equity of educational facilities in the county areas of the Loess Plateau gully region and to provide a decision-making basis for planning and layout of educational facilities in the county areas.

A Framework for Measuring the Spatial Equity in the Distribution of Public Transportation Benefits

This paper proposes that an equitable transit system requires that the geographical distribution of transit service benefits conform to the geographical distribution of the citizens with the greatest need for public transportation. This is the essence of vertical equity. This study calculated “connectivity power,” which reflects public transit service quality in each traffic analysis zone (TAZ) in a city to indicate the amount of benefit that TAZ is receiving from the transit system. The number of carless citizens in each TAZ was also calculated as an index of need to the public transit services in that area. Conformity of need and supply was analyzed using Spearman’s rank correlation and the Gini index. This framework indicates that in Isfahan, Iran, adding three bus rapid transit (BRT) lines and completing the existing metro line would not improve the Gini index but would improve the Spearman’s rank correlation to an acceptable level.

Spatial Equity of PM2.5 Pollution Exposures in High-Density Metropolitan Areas Based on Remote Sensing, LBS and GIS Data: A Case Study in Wuhan, China.

In-depth studies have been conducted on the risk of exposure to air pollution in urban residents, but most of them are static studies based on the population of residential units. Ignoring the real environmental dynamics during daily activity and mobility of individual residents makes it difficult to accurately estimate the level of air pollution exposure among residents and determine populations at higher risk of exposure. This paper uses the example of the Wuhan metropolitan area, high-precision air pollution, and population spatio-temporal dynamic distribution data, and applies geographically weighted regression models, bivariate LISA analysis, and Gini coefficients. The risk of air pollution exposure in elderly, low-age, and working-age communities in Wuhan was measured and the health equity within vulnerable groups such as the elderly and children was studied. We found that ignoring the spatio-temporal behavioral activities of residents underestimated the actual exposure hazard of PM2.5 to residents. The risk of air pollution exposure was higher for the elderly than for other age groups. Within the aging group, a few elderly people had a higher risk of pollution exposure. The high exposure risk communities of the elderly were mainly located in the central and sub-center areas of the city, with a continuous distribution characteristic. No significant difference was found in the exposure risk of children compared to the other populations, but a few children were particularly exposed to pollution. Children’s high-exposure communities were mainly located in suburban areas, with a discrete distribution. Compared with the traditional static PM2.5 exposure assessment, the dynamic assessment method proposed in this paper considers the high mobility of the urban population and air pollution. Thus, it can accurately reveal the actual risk of air pollution and identify areas and populations at high risk of air pollution, which in turn provides a scientific basis for proposing planning policies to reduce urban PM2.5 and improve urban spatial equity.

From service capacity to spatial equity: Exploring a multi-stage decision-making approach for optimizing elderly-care facility distribution in the city centre of Tianjin, China

• A decision-making approach for optimizing elderly-care facilities distribution is proposed. • A multi-stage measure procedure from service capacity to spatial equity is further devised. • The methodology is implemented in six districts in central Tianjin to demonstrate its applicability. • The spatial equity for each facility category in the six districts was evaluated and compared quantitatively. • Based on 24/7 nursing homes distribution, targeted optimisation suggestions are proposed in inequitable areas. With the unprecedented growth of the ageing population and the insufficiency of social services, the equitable distribution of elderly-care facilities (ECFs) according to demand of older adults has become a major concern of existing communities in the city centre with limited land use and high population density. To address the issue of social sustainability, this study explores a decision-making approach for measuring spatial equity. The distribution of three categories of ECFs in Tianjin city was examined by integrating the analysis of the current situation, accessibility, Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient, and spatial autocorrelation. In addition, spatial distribution status and potential accessibility were extracted and mapped to illustrate the service capacity. Subsequently, considering the population distribution, spatial equity was evaluated, and areas in supply-demand imbalance were identified. The results showed that 60% of the elderly shared only 25% of the elderly-care services, indicating a widespread inequity among districts and facilities. Interestingly, service capacity and spatial equity rankings varied for 24/7 nursing homes, while day-care centres and assisted-dining facilities remained consistent. This study would help urban planners assess and locate areas of spatial inequity and provide insight into the decision-making approaches adopted at different stages with the aim of sustainable development.

A design framework for considering spatial equity in sustainable urban drainage infrastructure

• Traditional design methods may lead to inequity in water infrastructure services. • A trade-off between spatial equity and other goals may exist. • A multi-criteria design framework addressing spatial equity is proposed. The design of urban drainage systems has traditionally aimed for cost and service objectives without considering broader socio-economic implications of design decisions. This can result in designs with unequal distributions of infrastructure services among urban communities. In this paper, we propose a design approach for multi-criteria design of urban drainage systems which combines traditional design objectives, such as reliability and cost-effectiveness, with social goals like reducing inequality in the spatial distribution of infrastructure benefits. A multi-dimensional search algorithm is linked to an urban rainfall-runoff simulation model to identify portfolios of efficient (Pareto-optimal) and spatially equitable drainage infrastructure developments. A measure of the difference in flood damage between different subregions is also considered as a decision-making aide along with other criteria. An illustrative case study shows how the design framework can help planners make trade-offs, for example between spatial equity and cost-effectiveness, when selecting future interventions in urban water systems. The results imply that traditional optimisation models can lead to inequity in spatial distribution of urban drainage infrastructure services and that equality in spatial distribution of green drainage assets does not necessarily entail fair spatial distribution of flood damage between different urban neighbourhoods.

Spatial Equity Priority Modeling of Elementary and Middle Schools through GIS Techniques, El-Taif City, Saudi Arabia

Spatial equity in the delivery of educational services is a critical element in creating healthful and joyful living circumstances in cities. The spatial distribution of public elementary and middle schools for girls in El-Taif city was investigated in this study using a variety of tools. Mean Center, Central Feature, Standard Distance, Directional Distribution, Point Density, Kernel Density, Nearest Neighbor Analysis, Ripley’s K Function, Moran Index, Buffer Zone, and Hotspot analysis are spatial techniques in Geographic Information Systems, which were used to analyze and show the spatial distribution of current public elementary and middle schools for females. Furthermore, the sufficiency and/or shortage of elementary and middle schools according to the criteria of the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs (MOMRA) were studied to establish the regions with shortage or overcapacity. The findings reveal that the city’s population and public elementary and middle school numbers were not spread equally. Some districts had an overabundance and concentration of elementary and middle schools, particularly in older, fully developed, and densely inhabited districts, while most new north and eastern districts had a scarcity of schools. Furthermore, half of the districts lack public elementary and middle schools. Consequently, the study finished by developing a spatial equality priority model for public elementary and middle schools to find and highlight problem areas that require future corrective action and are a priority for spatial equality. In order to contribute to achieving goal 4 of the UN-Habitat Sustainable Development Goals, which aims to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”, the model recommended that decision-makers supply elementary schools and middle schools in districts where a shortage was present and improve the equal distribution of elementary schools around the city.

An Improved Multi-Mode Two-Step Floating Catchment Area Method for Measuring Accessibility of Urban Park in Tianjin, China

Parks, as a major infrastructure that provide public service for urban residents, play a vital role in promoting urban livability and public health. Under the framework of spatial equity, more sophisticated accessibility methods were used on measuring urban park accessibility such as multi-mode 2SFCA. However, the accessibility of residential areas near parks was seriously underestimated by using the multi-mode 2SFCA method. Thus, this study aimed to propose an improved multi-mode 2SFCA method to measure urban park accessibility with a more appropriate approach, by taking residential areas of Tianjin central city as the spatial unit. The results indicate that all residential areas can obtain urban park accessibility, but the spatial distribution of urban park accessibility is heterogeneous. The numerical value of urban park accessibility decreases as the travel time from residential areas to urban parks increases; it is shown that the proposed method can provide a more realistic evaluation compared to the traditional multi-mode 2SFCA method. This study provides a comprehensive and realistic insight into acquainting with urban park accessibility and helps urban planners formulate effective policies and strategies to ease spatial imbalance.

Feasibility of measles and rubella vaccination programmes for disease elimination: a modelling study

Marked reductions in the incidence of measles and rubella have been observed since the widespread use of the measles and rubella vaccines. Although no global goal for measles eradication has been established, all six WHO regions have set measles elimination targets. However, a gap remains between current control levels and elimination targets, as shown by large measles outbreaks between 2017 and 2019. We aimed to model the potential for measles and rubella elimination globally to inform a WHO report to the 73rd World Health Assembly on the feasibility of measles and rubella eradication. In this study, we modelled the probability of measles and rubella elimination between 2020 and 2100 under different vaccination scenarios in 93 countries of interest. We evaluated measles and rubella burden and elimination across two national transmission models each (Dynamic Measles Immunisation Calculation Engine [DynaMICE], Pennsylvania State University [PSU], Johns Hopkins University, and Public Health England models), and one subnational measles transmission model (Institute for Disease Modeling model). The vaccination scenarios included a so-called business as usual approach, which continues present vaccination coverage, and an intensified investment approach, which increases coverage into the future. The annual numbers of infections projected by each model, country, and vaccination scenario were used to explore if, when, and for how long the infections would be below a threshold for elimination. The intensified investment scenario led to large reductions in measles and rubella incidence and burden. Rubella elimination is likely to be achievable in all countries and measles elimination is likely in some countries, but not all. The PSU and DynaMICE national measles models estimated that by 2050, the probability of elimination would exceed 75% in 14 (16%) and 36 (39%) of 93 modelled countries, respectively. The subnational model of measles transmission highlighted inequity in routine coverage as a likely driver of the continuance of endemic measles transmission in a subset of countries. To reach regional elimination goals, it will be necessary to innovate vaccination strategies and technologies that increase spatial equity of routine vaccination, in addition to investing in existing surveillance and outbreak response programmes. WHO, Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

The Impact of Rail Transit on Accessibility and Spatial Equity of Public Transit: A Case Study of Guangzhou, China.

The urban rail transit network provides the possibility for people to shift from car to public transit for travel. This paper clarified the relationships among public transit, accessibility, and equity and studied the impact of rail transit on public transit accessibility that incorporates the measure of travel time and transit fare and the impacts’ spatial equity. The results show that rail transit contributes to the similar distribution between high rate of changes of time-based accessibility communities and fare-based accessibility communities, which are located nearby the rail transit lines. The degree of inequity in travel time is higher than the degree in transit fare in two scenarios. Due to the well-connected bus transit in the city center, absolute changes in travel time are slight, while relative changes are high. The rail transit has promoted the improvement of public transit equity in some areas. The difference between the time-based accessibility of Conghua District, northern and southern Baiyun District, Huadu District, Nansha District and southern Panyu District, and other communities is getting smaller, which is conducive to the improvement of spatial equity. The results provide theoretical support for the development of an integrated multimodal public transit system.

Spatial equity implications and neighborhood indicators of ridehailing trip frequency and vehicle miles traveled in the phoenix metro region.

Early optimism for ridehailing services to complement existing public transit services and offer individuals another shared mobility service with reduced travel costs and improved travel times have largely proven to be unsubstantiated. This unwelcomed outcome, in part due to the popularity of ridehailing services among wealthier populations and restrictions on the less-expensive ridesharing service in some urban settings, has likely instead resulted in heightened disparities in access to this on-demand mobility option for historically-marginalized populations and under-resourced communities. This hypothesis is examined by estimating the macro-level socioeconomic and built environment determinants of ridehailing pick-ups and drop-offs in the Phoenix metro region with spatial lag of X modeling. A geographically weighted regression (GWR) model of vehicle miles traveled was then estimated using route-level ridehailing data from a third-party mileage tracking app to identify zonal attributes associated with this measure of vehicle-based exposure. Together, study findings highlight the benefits and drawbacks of greater ridehailing service activity, identifying a need for programs and interventions that safeguard and improve access to affordable high-quality mobility options for transportation disadvantaged neighborhoods.

Ultimate producer responsibility for e‐waste management–A proposal for just transition in the circular economy based on the case of used European electronic equipment exported to Nigeria

AbstractUsed European electric and electronic equipment (UEEE) has multiple use cycles in various countries, including Nigeria. Although the EU‐Nigeria e‐waste trade is illegal under EU and Nigerian law, previous research shows that some imported equipment is only fit for disposal. Imported UEEE has a short lifespan. Such European e‐waste exports imported to Nigeria have sustainability and circularity implications for both places and raise questions about justice and equity. Using a transdisciplinary approach, we identify existing practices and challenges in Nigeria and co‐create actionable solutions towards a sustainable, circular and fairness‐driven UEEE and e‐waste value chain. We find current extended producer responsibility (EPR) does not focus on the entire global value chain, is linear, and lacks transparency, accountability, and consideration for spatial equity. To overcome these shortcomings, we propose ultimate producer responsibility (UPR). UPR aids sustainability and circularity transition while paying attention to justice and equity. The research adds global and social dimensions to the European circular economy (CE), otherwise primarily focused on national material cycles.

Spatial equity of modal access gap to multiple destination types across Chicago

This study examines the Modal Access Gap (MAG) between transit and automobile to employment, groceries, hospitals, and schools in 15-min, 30-min, 45-min, and 60-min travel-time thresholds in the City of Chicago. We use automobile and transit access data from the Metropolitan Chicago Accessibility Explorer and augment it with data from the American Community Survey and the Smart Location Database. We employ a Spatial Lag Model to explore sociodemographic and built-environment correlates of MAG and the bivariate local indicator of spatial association to create cluster maps to offer a way to assess the spatial equity of MAG as it relates to carless households. The findings indicate that: (1) regardless of the travel-time threshold, the automobile has an advantage over transit in providing access to opportunities, (2) block groups with low MAG are concentrated and clustered in the Central Business District, (3) Millennials and car-free households are more likely to reside in areas with lower accessibility gap to employment, groceries, hospitals, and schools for 30-min and 60-min travel-time thresholds, and (4) areas with high access gap and a high proportion of carless households have a higher percentage of African Americans and low-income households. We recommend using the bivariate spatial autocorrelation analysis to classify areas according to the gap in accessibility and proportion of households without vehicles. This classification is then used to prioritize different planning actions for high-high, high-low, low-high, and low-low combinations of MAG and the proportion of carless households. We also show that this spatial identification, at least in the case of Chicago, captures racial and economic differences in the underlying population and can help address inequities in accessibility, particularly in high access gap, high carless areas.

Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Ecosystem Services Provided by Urban Green Spaces and Their Equity along Urban–Rural Gradients in the Xi’an Metropolitan Area, China

Urban green spaces (UGSs) are indispensable for providing various ecosystem services (ESs) to society and city-dwellers. The equitable allocation of ESs provided by UGSs is a prerequisite for maintaining urban sustainability and human well-being. However, empirical studies have assessed the dynamics of UGS equity from ES facets, while neglecting to strengthen integrated evaluation indicators and coupled spatially explicit models. A framework was developed in this study to assess the spatio-temporal patterns of ESs provided by UGSs and their equity based on models of the Intelligent Urban Ecosystem Management System, location entropy, and the Gini coefficient. The results indicated that with urban spatial expansion, in each concentric circle, the values of three ES averages were generally the lowest in the megacity (Xi’an), and the values of carbon sequestration and the recreation averages in the medium-sized cities (Baoji and Xianyang) were also lower than in the small-sized city (Tongchuan). The inequity of ESs provided by UGSs was exacerbated from 2000 to 2020 in the Xi’an Metropolitan Area. The ES equity was the worst in Xi’an and the best in Tongchuan. Areas with extremely low CR location entropy occupied 67.01% in 2020. As cities spatially expanded, areas with extremely low ES location entropy generally increased in 2020. Additionally, the zero-value area of the ES Gini coefficient in Xi’an was the largest from 2000 to 2020. The ES Gini values mostly increased in the same concentric circle of each city in 2020, which demonstrates that equity declined. Spatial equity could be improved by diversifying UGS structures, promoting spatial matching between the ES supply and beneficiaries’ demands, and integrating UGSs into any available space in future UGS planning. The findings of the study could offer insights for optimizing the equitable provision of UGS resources and the targeted planning of urban greening.