Spatial Dose Research Articles

Messungen im Festkörperphantom als Qualitätskontrolle in der Brachytherapie – Systemprüfung und Konstanzprüfung

In brachytherapy dosimetric measurements are difficult due to the inherent dose-inhomogenieties. Typically in routine clincal practice only the nominal dose rate is determined for computer controlled afterloading systems. The region of interest lies close to the source when measuring the spatial dose distribution. In this region small errors in the postioning of the detector, and its finite size, lead to large measurement uncertainties that exacerbate the routine dosimetric control of the system in the clinic.The size of the measurement chamber, its energy dependence, and the directional dependence of the measurement apparatus are the factors which have a significant influence on dosimetry. Although ionisation chambers are relatively large, they are employed since similar chambers are commonly found on clincal brachytherapy units.The dose is determined using DIN 6800 [11] since DIN 6809-2 [12], which deals with dosimetry in brachytherapy, is antiquated and is currently in the process of revision. Further information regarding dosimetry for brachytherapy can be found in textbooks [1] and [2]. The measurements for this work were performed with a HDR (High-Dose-Rate) 192Ir source, type mHDR V2, and a Microselectron Afterloader V2 both from Nucletron/Elekta.In this work two dosimetric procedures are presented which, despite the aforemention difficulties, should assist in performing checks of the proper operation of the system. The first is a system check that measures the dose distribution along a line and is to be performed when first bringing the afterloader into operation, or after significant changes to the system.The other is a dosimetric constancy check, which with little effort can be performed monhtly or weekly. It simultaneously verifies the positioning of the source at two positions, the functionality of the system clock and the automatic re-calculation of the source activity.

Spatial dose distribution in polymer pipes exposed to electron beam

Abstract Non-uniform distribution of absorbed dose in cross-section of any polymeric pipe is caused by non-uniform thickness of polymer layer penetrated by unidirectional electron beam. The special computer program was created for a prompt estimation of dose non-uniformity in pipes subjected to an irradiation by 1–10 MeV electron beam. Irrespective of electron beam energy, the local doses absorbed in the bulk of a material can be calculated on the basis of the universal correlations offered in the work. Incomplete deceleration of electrons in shallow layers of a polymer was taken into account. Possibilities for wide variation of pipe sizes, polymer properties and irradiation modes were provided by the algorithm. Both the unilateral and multilateral irradiation can be simulated.

Enhancing the longevity of three-dimensional dose in a diffusion-controlled Fricke gel dosimeter.

The principle of Fricke gel dosimeter is the oxidation of ferric ions on exposure to radiation. The major limitation in this dosimeter is the post-irradiation diffusion of ferric ions leading to degradation of spatial dose information. The primary objective of this study is to reduce diffusion of ferric ions post-irradiation and enhance the spatial stability of the dose for an acceptable period, within which it can be read out. A novel method has been proposed to achieve this aim by incorporation of an anti-oxidant in the present Fricke gel dosimeter. The modified gel prepared in this study consisted of 50 mM sulfuric acid, 0.05 mM xylenol orange, 0.5 mM ferrous ammonium sulfate, and an optimal concentration of anti-oxidant. Different concentrations of the anti-oxidant (ascorbic acid and glycine) based gel dosimeters were prepared. The performance evaluations of the same were characterized dosimetrically with high energy photons (x- and gamma rays). Spectrophotometric measurements of gel dosimeters were performed at a wavelength of 585 nm and the post-irradiation diffusion was studied by observing the dose response over time. The spatial dose information from the large volume cylindrical gel phantoms was acquired using an in-house optical computed tomography scanner. Auto-oxidation and diffusion were controlled in the enhanced Fricke gel dosimeter by the incorporation of glycine as anti-oxidant. The post-irradiation dose in the gel dosimeter was stable up to 6 hours, thereby enhancing the longevity of three-dimensional (3D) dose. The widely established limitations of Fricke gel dosimeter viz., auto-oxidation and diffusion were overcome using a novel method that incorporated optimal quantity of glycine as a suitable anti-oxidant. This modified Fricke gel dosimeter could be used as an effective 3D dosimeter for practical applications in radiotherapy.

Effect of deformable registration on the dose calculated in radiation therapy planning CT scans of lung cancer patients.

To characterize the effects of deformable image registration of serial computed tomography (CT) scans on the radiation dose calculated from a treatment planning scan. Eighteen patients who received curative doses (≥ 60 Gy, 2 Gy/fraction) of photon radiation therapy for lung cancer treatment were retrospectively identified. For each patient, a diagnostic-quality pretherapy (4-75 days) CT scan and a treatment planning scan with an associated dose map were collected. To establish correspondence between scan pairs, a researcher manually identified anatomically corresponding landmark point pairs between the two scans. Pretherapy scans then were coregistered with planning scans (and associated dose maps) using the demons deformable registration algorithm and two variants of the Fraunhofer MEVIS algorithm ("Fast" and "EMPIRE10"). Landmark points in each pretherapy scan were automatically mapped to the planning scan using the displacement vector field output from each of the three algorithms. The Euclidean distance between manually and automatically mapped landmark points (dE) and the absolute difference in planned dose (|ΔD|) were calculated. Using regression modeling, |ΔD| was modeled as a function of dE, dose (D), dose standard deviation (SD(dose)) in an eight-pixel neighborhood, and the registration algorithm used. Over 1400 landmark point pairs were identified, with 58-93 (median: 84) points identified per patient. Average |ΔD| across patients was 3.5 Gy (range: 0.9-10.6 Gy). Registration accuracy was highest using the Fraunhofer MEVIS EMPIRE10 algorithm, with an average dE across patients of 5.2 mm (compared with >7 mm for the other two algorithms). Consequently, average |ΔD| was also lowest using the Fraunhofer MEVIS EMPIRE10 algorithm. |ΔD| increased significantly as a function of dE (0.42 Gy/mm), D (0.05 Gy/Gy), SD(dose) (1.4 Gy/Gy), and the algorithm used (≤ 1 Gy). An average error of <4 Gy in radiation dose was introduced when points were mapped between CT scan pairs using deformable registration, with the majority of points yielding dose-mapping error <2 Gy (approximately 3% of the total prescribed dose). Registration accuracy was highest using the Fraunhofer MEVIS EMPIRE10 algorithm, resulting in the smallest errors in mapped dose. Dose differences following registration increased significantly with increasing spatial registration errors, dose, and dose gradient (i.e., SDdose). This model provides a measurement of the uncertainty in the radiation dose when points are mapped between serial CT scans through deformable registration.

Experimental dosimetry in conformal breast teletherapy compared with the planning system

The objective of this study was to compare and analyse the absorbed dose profiles from the conformal radiotherapy planning and experimental dosimetry taken in a breast anthropomorphic and anthropometric phantom. Conformal radiotherapy planning was elaborated in the Treatment Planning System (TPS). EBT2 Gafchromic radiochromic films were applied as dosimeters, positioned internally and superficially in the breast phantom. The standard radiation protocol was applied in the breast phantom. The films were digitalised, and their responses were analysed in RGB. The optical densities were processed, reproducing the spatial dose distribution.

Use of bladder dose points for assessment of the spatial dose distribution in the posterior bladder wall in cervical cancer brachytherapy and the impact of applicator position.

To validate the feasibility and use of dose points to characterize the bladder wall dose distribution and investigate potential impact of the applicator position in cervical cancer brachytherapy. One hundred twenty-eight optimized MRI plans were evaluated. The International Commission of Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU-38) point doses (B(ICRU)), surrogate for bladder base doses, were compared with D(2cc). Vaginal source to superior-anterior border of the symphysis distances were measured and compared within two groups, namely Group 1-B(ICRU)/D(2cc) ≥1 and Group 2-B(ICRU)/D(2cc) <1. Additionally, points at 1.5 and 2 cm cranial to the B(ICRU), parallel to the tandem and the body axis were analyzed. Thirty-seven percent of the patients had the ratio B(ICRU)/D(2cc) of 1 or higher, with the 2cc subvolume at the bladder base (Group 1). In 63%, BICRU/D2cc ratio was lower than 1 and the 2cc, cranial to the bladder base (Group 2). Median vaginal source-to-superior-anterior border of the symphysis line distance was -2 cm (range, -3.7 to +1.2 cm) in Group 1 and +1.8 cm (range, -2 to +4.8 cm) in Group 2 (+ cranial/- caudal direction). There was a high correlation between vaginal sources near the symphysis and the 2cc subvolume at the bladder base. The additional points provided no added value. Location of the 2cc subvolume varies in cervical cancer brachytherapy. Maximum doses are at the bladder base if vaginal sources are also in the vicinity of the bladder base indicated by B(ICRU)/D(2cc) ratio of 1 or higher. Such variation should be considered in dose-effect analyses and intercomparisons, as the same D(2cc) at different bladder locations may correlate with different morbidity profiles and severity Reporting D(2cc) and B(ICRU) doses together therefore remains essential.

Microcomputed tomography: approaches and applications in bioengineering.

Microcomputed tomography (microCT) has become a standard and essential tool for quantifying structure-function relationships, disease progression, and regeneration in preclinical models and has facilitated numerous scientific and bioengineering advancements over the past 30 years. In this article, we recount the early events that led to the initial development of microCT and review microCT approaches for quantitative evaluation of bone, cartilage, and cardiovascular structures, with applications in fundamental structure-function analysis, disease, tissue engineering, and numerical modeling. Finally, we address several next-generation approaches under active investigation to improve spatial resolution, acquisition time, tissue contrast, radiation dose, and functional and molecular information.

Development of image quality assurance measures of the ExacTrac localization system using commercially available image evaluation software and hardware for image-guided radiotherapy.

Quality assurance (QA) of the image quality for image‐guided localization systems is crucial to ensure accurate visualization and localization of target volumes. In this study, a methodology was developed to assess and evaluate the constancy of the high‐contrast spatial resolution, dose, energy, contrast, and geometrical accuracy of the BrainLAB ExacTrac system. An in‐house fixation device was constructed to hold the QCkV‐1 phantom firmly and reproducibly against the face of the flat panel detectors. Two image sets per detector were acquired using ExacTrac preset console settings over a period of three months. The image sets were analyzed in PIPSpro and the following metrics were recorded: high‐contrast spatial resolution (f30,f40,f50 (lp/mm)), noise, and contrast‐to‐noise ratio. Geometrical image accuracy was evaluated by assessing the length between to predetermined points of the QCkV‐1 phantom. Dose and kVp were recorded using the Unfors RaySafe Xi R/F Detector. The kVp and dose were evaluated for the following: Cranial Standard (CS) (80 kV,80 mA,80 ms), Thorax Standard (TS) (120 kV,160 mA,160 ms), Abdomen Standard (AS) (120 kV,160 mA,130 ms), and Pelvis Standard (PS) (120 kV,160 mA,160 ms). With regard to high‐contrast spatial resolution, the mean values of the f30 (lp/mm), f40 (lp/mm) and f50 (lp/mm) for the left detector were 1.39±0.04,1.24±0.05, and 1.09±0.04, respectively, while for the right detector they were 1.38±0.04,1.22±0.05, and 1.09±0.05, respectively. Mean CNRs for the left and right detectors were 148±3 and 143±4, respectively. For geometrical accuracy, both detectors had a measured image length of the QCkV‐1 of 57.9±0.5mm. The left detector showed dose measurements of 20.4±0.2μGy(CS), 191.8±0.7μGy(TS), 154.2±0.7μGy(AS), and 192.2±0.6μGy(PS), while the right detector showed 20.3±0.3μGy(CS), 189.7±0.8μGy(TS), 151.0±0.7μGy(AS), and 189.7±0.8μGy(PS), respectively. For X‐ray energy, the left detector (right X‐ray tube) had mean kVp readings of 81.6±0.5(CS), 122.5±0.5(TS), 122.0±0.8(AS), and 122.1±0.7(PS), and the right detector (left X‐ray tube) had 81.6±0.5(CS), 120.8±0.5(TS), 120.9±0.6(AS), and 121.3±0.7(PS). Run charts were created so that each parameter could be tracked over time and the constancy of the system could be monitored. A methodology was developed to assess the basic image quality parameters recommended by TG‐142 for the ExacTrac system. The ExacTrac system shows a consistent dose, kVp, high‐contrast spatial resolution, CNR, and geometrical accuracy for each detector over the evaluated timeframe.PACS number: 87.10.‐e

Experimental verification of achieving vertical sidewalls for nanoscale features in electron-beam lithography

It is often necessary to achieve a vertical sidewall in the remaining resist profile obtained through electron-beam lithographic process. For nanoscale features, the spatial dose distribution of V-shape typically used in a conventional two-dimensional proximity effect correction scheme cannot easily achieve a vertical sidewall while also minimizing the critical dimension (CD) error. In an earlier study, it was shown through simulation based on a three-dimensional model that new types of spatial dose distributions, i.e., M- and A-shapes, are effective in achieving vertical sidewalls and minimizing the CD error and total dose. These two dose distributions exploit the fact that the exposure varies along the depth dimension with high and low contrasts at the top and bottom layers of resist, respectively. In this study, a number of experiments have been carried out in order to verify the simulation results reported earlier. This paper includes a review of the new dose distribution types and experimental results with a detailed discussion.

Multistep Aztec profiles by grayscale electron beam lithography for angle-resolved microspectrometer applications

In this paper, grayscale electron beam lithography is applied to generate multistep Aztec profiles (MAPs) for angle-resolved spectral applications such as microspectrometers. Monte Carlo simulations taking into consideration the proximity effect are carried out to calculate the spatial dose distributions for desired profiles, using actual dissolution rates measured on the same resist. The MAPs in PMMA resist with step heights from 50 to 200 nm and step widths from 0.1 to 5 μm are achieved by high-resolution electron beam lithography, and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy are used to characterize the quality of the MAPs. Angle-resolved spectra of the reflectance are obtained using a finite-difference time-domain simulator and by experimental measurements. A distinct angle selection of the wavelengths is demonstrated, though the high surface roughness measured on the deeper steps may cause broadening of the spectral peaks. Initial investigations into the origin of the surface roughness are carried out, and further improvements are discussed.

A decision tool to adjust the prescribed dose after change in the dose calculation algorithm

Purpose:This work aims to introduce a method to quantify and assess the differences in monitor unites MUs when changing to new dose calculation software that uses a different algorithm, and to evaluate the need and extent of adjustment of the pr e- scribed dose to ma intain the same clinical results. Methods:Doses were calculated using two classical algorithms based on the Pencil Beam Convolution PBC model, using 6 patients presenting lung cancers. For each patient, 3 treatment plans were gene r- ated: Plan 1 wascalculated using reference algorithm PBC without heterogeneity correction, Plan 2 was calculated using test algorithm with heterogeneity correction, and in plan 3 the dose was recalculated using test algorithm and monitor unites MUs obtained from plan 1 as input. To assess the differences in the calculated MUs, isocenter dose, and spatial dose distributions u s- ing a gamma index were compared. Statistical analysis was based on a Wilcoxon signed rank test. Results:The test algorithm in plan 2 calculated signi ficantly less MUs than reference algorithm in plan 1 by on average 5%, ( p<0.001). We also found unde r- estimating dose for target volumes using 3D gamma index analysis. In this example, in order to obtain the same clinical ou t- comes with the two algorithms the prescribed dose should be adjusted by 5%.This method provides a quantitative evaluation of the differences between two dose calculation algorithms and the consequences on the prescribed dose. It could b e used to adjust the prescribed dose when changing calculation software to maintain the same clinical results as obtained with the former software. In particular, the gamma evaluation could be applied to any situation where changes in the dose calculation occur in radiotherapy.

Inverse modeling of FIB milling by dose profile optimization

FIB technologies possess a unique ability to form topographies that are difficult or impossible to generate with binary etching through typical photo-lithography. The ability to arbitrarily vary the spatial dose distribution and therefore the amount of milling opens possibilities for the production of a wide range of functional structures with applications in biology, chemistry, and optics. However in practice, the realization of these goals is made difficult by the angular dependence of the sputtering yield and redeposition effects that vary as the topography evolves. An inverse modeling algorithm that optimizes dose profiles, defined as the superposition of time invariant pixel dose profiles (determined from the beam parameters and pixel dwell times), is presented. The response of the target to a set of pixel dwell times in modeled by numerical continuum simulations utilizing 1st and 2nd order sputtering and redeposition, the resulting surfaces are evaluated with respect to a target topography in an error minimization routine. Two algorithms for the parameterization of pixel dwell times are presented, a direct pixel dwell time method, and an abstracted method that uses a refineable piecewise linear cage function to generate pixel dwell times from a minimal number of parameters. The cage function method demonstrates great flexibility and efficiency as compared to the direct fitting method with performance enhancements exceeding ∼10× as compared to direct fitting for medium to large simulation sets. Furthermore, the refineable nature of the cage function enables solutions to adapt to the desired target function. The optimization algorithm, although working with stationary dose profiles, is demonstrated to be applicable also outside the quasi-static approximation. Experimental data confirms the viability of the solutions for 5×7μm deep lens like structures defined by 90 pixel dwell times.

Optimisation of an EPR dosimetry system for robust and high precision dosimetry

Clinical applications of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) dosimetry systems demand high accuracy causing time consuming analysis. The need for high spatial resolution dose measurements in regions with steep dose gradients demands small sized dosimeters. An optimization of the analysis was therefore needed to limit the time consumption. The aim of this work was to introduce a new smaller lithium formate dosimeter model (diameter reduced from standard diameter 4.5 mm to 3 mm and height from 4.8 mm to 3 mm). To compensate for reduced homogeneity in a batch of the smaller dosimeters, a method for individual sensitivity correction suitable for EPR dosimetry was tested. Sensitivity and repeatability was also tested for a standard EPR resonator and a super high Q (SHQE) one. The aim was also to optimize the performance of the dosimetry system for better efficiency regarding measurement time and precision. A systematic investigation of the relationship between measurement uncertainty and number of readouts per dosimeter was performed. The conclusions drawn from this work were that it is possible to decrease the dosimeter size with maintained measurement precision by using the SHQE resonator and introducing individual calibration factors for dosimeter batches. It was also shown that it is possible reduce the number of readouts per dosimeter without significantly decreasing the accuracy in measurements.

Radioembolization of hepatic lesions from a radiobiology and dosimetric perspective.

Radioembolization (RE) of liver cancer with 90Y-microspheres has been applied in the last two decades with notable responses and acceptable toxicity. Two types of microspheres are available, glass and resin, the main difference being the activity/sphere. Generally, administered activities are established by empirical methods and differ for the two types. Treatment planning based on dosimetry is a prerogative of few centers, but has notably gained interest, with evidence of predictive power of dosimetry on toxicity, lesion response, and overall survival (OS). Radiobiological correlations between absorbed doses and toxicity to organs at risk, and tumor response, have been obtained in many clinical studies. Dosimetry methods have evolved from the macroscopic approach at the organ level to voxel analysis, providing absorbed dose spatial distributions and dose–volume histograms (DVH). The well-known effects of the external beam radiation therapy (EBRT), such as the volume effect, underlying disease influence, cumulative damage in parallel organs, and different tolerability of re-treatment, have been observed also in RE, identifying in EBRT a foremost reference to compare with. The radiobiological models – normal tissue complication probability and tumor control probability – and/or the style (DVH concepts) used in EBRT are introduced in RE. Moreover, attention has been paid to the intrinsic different activity distribution of resin and glass spheres at the microscopic scale, with dosimetric and radiobiological consequences. Dedicated studies and mathematical models have developed this issue and explain some clinical evidences, e.g., the shift of dose to higher toxicity thresholds using glass as compared to resin spheres. This paper offers a comprehensive review of the literature incident to dosimetry and radiobiological issues in RE, with the aim to summarize the results and to identify the most useful methods and information that should accompany future studies.

Radiation-induced changes in hepatocyte-specific Gd-EOB-DTPA enhanced MRI: Potential mechanism

Liver irradiation leads to a decreased uptake of a hepatobiliary directed MRI contrast agent (Gd-EOB-DTPA) as shown in studies performed 1–6months after proton therapy, stereotactic ablative body radiation therapy and brachytherapy. Therefore, Gd-EOB-DTPA enhanced MRI could potentially be used for in vivo verification of the delivered dose distribution. Achieving this would be highly desirable, especially for particle therapy, where the accuracy and precision of the spatial dose deposition is affected by uncertainties of the range of particles in patients. However, the empirically detected effect needs to be understood before it can be used as a surrogate imaging biomarker for in vivo treatment verification or even liver functionality. Here, we propose a model of the underlying molecular mechanism of this phenomenon and discuss its implications for radiation therapy.We model the multi-step process starting from the immediate response after liver irradiation to the delayed/subsequent signal decrease in Gd-EOB-DTPA enhanced MRI. The model is based on both: (a) Evidence from different previously published reports and (b) a detailed evaluation of intra-hepatic signaling using a pathway analysis to identify potential pathways that are critical in this process.The proposed model provides mechanistic understanding of the reduced signal intensity in Gd-EOB-DTPA enhanced MRI occurring in irradiated liver. We think that establishing this comprehensive model will be of great interest for the field of radiation oncology and can trigger further research. For example, measuring the expression of involved cytokines and specific transport proteins in blood samples and biopsy derived tissue samples and correlating the results with MRI imaging could give important information and may even explain inter-patient variations in MRI signal decrease.

Visualization of high radiation field by radiophotoluminescence photography

We have proposed a simple technique for the visualization of high radiation fields by radiophotoluminescence (RPL) photography. Pulverized RPL glass particles were encapsulated into hundreds of polystyrene balls of accumulation-type RPL detectors. The RPL detectors were placed near an intense gamma-ray source. After irradiation, the RPL detectors were uniformly brightened with a UV illuminator. Orange RPL could be observed by the naked eye at doses above 5 Gy. For a dose above 0.5 Gy, a clear RPL photograph was taken with a digital camera. The spatial dose distribution was obtained through digital image processing of the RPL photograph. Therefore, this simple RPL photographing technique using RPL detectors is useful for detecting high levels of radioactivity.

시스템 개선을 통한 핵의학 검사실의 공간 선량률 감소방안

Objectives: This study aims at decreasing spatial dose rate through work improvement whilst spatial dose rate is the cause of increasing personal exposure dose which occurs in the process of handling radioisotope. Methods: From February 2013 until July 2013, divided into "before" and "after" the improvement, spatial dose rate in laboratory of nuclear medicine was measured in gamma image room, PET/CT-1 image room, and PET/CT-2 image room as its locations. The measurement time was 08:00, 12:00 and 17:00, and SPSS 21.0 USA was opted for its statistical analysis. Result: The spatial dose rate at distribution worktable, injection table, the entrance to the distribution room, and radioisotope storage box, which had showed high spatial dose rate, decreased by more than 43.7% a monthly average. The distribution worktable, that had showed the highest spatial dose rate in PET/CT-1 image room, dropped the rate to 42.3% as of July. The injection table and distribution worktable in the PET/CT-2 image room also showed the decline of spatial dose rate to 89% and 64.4%, respectively. Conclusion: By improving distribution process and introducing proper radiation shielding material, we were able to drop the spatial dose rate substantially at distribution worktable, injection table, and nuclide storage box. However, taking into account of steadily increasing amount of radioisotope used, strengthening radiation related regulations, and safe utilization of radioisotope, the process of system improvement needs to be maintained through continuous monitoring.

Characterization of long-term dose stability of N-isopropylacrylamide polymer gel dosimetry

In this study, the detailed characteristics, including spatial uniformity, dose distributions, inter-batch variability, reproducibility, and long-term temporal stability, of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) polymer gel dosimeter were investigated. A commercial 10x fast optical computed tomography scanner (OCTOPUSTM-10×, MGS Research, Inc., Madison, CT, USA) was used to measure NIPAM polymer gel dosimeter. A cylindrical NIPAM gel phantom that measured 10 cm × 10 cm was irradiated via a single-field treatment plan with a field size of 4 cm × 4 cm. The maximum standard deviation of spatial uniformity for NIPAM gel was less than 0.29 %. The average standard deviation among the three batches of gel dosimeters was less than 1 %. The gamma pass rate could reach as high as 96.76 % when a 3 % dose difference and a 3 mm dose-to-agreement criteria were used. The long-term measurement of irradiated NIPAM gel dosimeter indicated that the dose maps attained a gradually stable value 15 h post-irradiation and remained stable until 72 h post-irradiation. The gamma pass rate could achieve a maximum value between 24 and 72 h post-irradiation. The edge enhancement effect that occurred around the irradiated region was observed 72 h post-irradiation. Thus, the results from this study suggest that NIPAM gel dosimeter should be measured approximately 24 h post-irradiation to reduce the occurrence of the edge enhancement effect.

SU‐E‐J‐05: A Dose‐Based Metric to Assess the Accuracy of Deformable Image Registration

Purpose:To examine the correlation between landmark‐based spatial registration error and a novel metric for evaluating dose mapping error.Methods:The dose mapping error was calculated from the difference between the dose distributions obtained using two different dose mapping techniques. One method calculates the dose on a deformed geometry while the other calculates the dose on the target geometry. In both cases the dose distributions are mapped in a consistent manner back to the reference geometry. For a realistic clinical lung plan, dose distributions were mapped to the Exhale phase for repeated deformable registrations with different average spatial registration accuracies as determined by distance to agreement of 300 manually identified landmarks. The dose mapping error and spatial registration error were compared at each landmark and the correlation was assessed.Results:No clear correlation was observed between spatial registration accuracy and dose mapping error, however, the average dose mapping error was found to increase as average spatial registration accuracy increased. The relationship between the dose mapping error and spatial error at each landmark point was found to be influenced by the dose gradient, density gradients and voxel size.Conclusion:The dose mapping error was found to not have any direct relationship with spatial registration error but depends on a number of factors including: dose gradient, density gradient and voxel size. Our results indicate that landmark analysis on its own is not a sufficient predictor of the accuracy of dose mapping and that metrics that directly assess the dose mapping error should be used.Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council

SU-E-T-228: Liquid Ionisation Chamber Array and MicroDiamond Measurements with the CyberKnife System

Purpose: The aim of this study was to measure the dose profile and output factors with a CyberKnife accelerator using a TM60019 microDiamond detector and a 1000SRS liquid chamber array (both PTW Freiburg, Germany). Methods: An MP3 water phantom (PTW, Freiburg) was positioned along the robotic world coordinate system. The TM60019 detector was adjusted to the center of the according fields and the semiconductor axis was aligned with the beam direction. Profiles at 5cm water depth and SSD = 80 cm were measured along the robotic x axis and y axis for the cylindrical collimators of the CyberKnife (diameter 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 15, 12.5, 10, 7.5 and 5mm). To determine the output factors the dose profile was measured at 0.1 mm steps around the field center to find the maximum dose value. The liquid chamber array (1000SRS) measurement was performed with the same setup, but with RW3 buildup. Results: The 1000SRS measurements closely conform with the TM60019 profile measurement in all profile regions and for all collimator sizes. The profile measurement is influenced by the almost equal spatial resolution of the TM60019 detector (radius of the sensitive area 1.1mm) and of the 1000SRS liquid chamber array (single chamber width 2.3mm). The measured dose profiles have not been corrected for this limited spatial resolution. Rather we purpose to consider that spatial dose averaging over 2 mm wide regions might be justified in view of patient positioning inaccuracies and of the spaces in tissue participating in the biological radiation responses. Conclusion: The 1000SRS data points conform with the TM60019 profile measurements at all profile regions showing the applicability of liquid ion chamber arrays with the CyberKnife system.