Spatial Distribution Of Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Vegetation density and altitude determine the supply of dry Afromontane forest ecosystem services: Evidence from Ethiopia

Mapping forest ecosystem services (ES) and identifying both natural and anthropogenic factors influencing their supply and distribution is a key step for sustainable and climate-smart forest management planning. This is particularly important for dry and mountain forests which are among the most threatened and neglected ecosystems globally. These forests are facing increasing demands for different land uses and ES with rising conflicts with each other.This study identifies, quantifies, and maps the spatial distribution of one supporting, three regulating, and four provisioning forest ES. Furthermore, a set of potential natural and anthropogenic factors influencing ES distribution in Desa’a forest, a dry Afromontane Forest in Tigray, Ethiopia, was assessed. The supply of some of the assessed ES depended on vegetation density, while the supply of others depended on woody species diversity, which resulted in a clustering of ES in two different geographical areas. Both natural and anthropogenic factors were important for explaining variations in the spatial distribution of ES, of which altitude and vegetation density were the most influential factors.Our findings can contribute to the development of sustainable forest management strategies for dry and mountain forests by providing knowledge on the spatial supply of ES. The ES maps can be used as a basis for developing dedicated zoning plans which could improve forest management.

Meta-Analysis and Spatial Distribution of Ecosystem Services in Louisiana's Coastal Zone: Implications for Coastal Restoration

Meta-Analysis and Spatial Distribution of Ecosystem Services in Louisiana's Coastal Zone: Implications for Coastal Restoration

Trade-offs and synergies relationships of ecosystem services and their socio-ecological driving factors under different spatial scales in Shaoguan City, Guangdong, China.

Ecosystem services refer to the benefits that human obtain from natural ecosystems. Different ecosystem services are generated by the combination of social-ecological driving factors, and exhibit different spatial patterns across scales. The complex relationships and driving mechanisms among ecosystem services under different spatial scales remain unclear. With Shaoguan City from Guangdong Province as the study area, we analyzed the spatial patterns and relationships of four ecosystem services and their trade-offs/synergies (TOSs), quantified their responses to seven social-ecological drivers at the kilometer grid scale and sub-watershed scale, and proposed regional ecologi-cal management and planning strategies for cross-scale sustainable development. The results showed that the spatial distribution of ecosystem services in Shaoguan City exhibited spatial clustering and cross-scale variations. Habitat quality, water yield, and carbon storage exhibited similar spatial distribution pattern. High supply was mainly distributed in mountainous areas in the east, north, west, and south, while weak supply was distributed in plain areas in the central, northwest, south and northeast. In addition, the spatial clustering of these services intensified with increasing spatial scale. Ecosystem services displayed synergistic relationships at both spatial scales, and the intensity of the synergy changed with scale. At both the kilometer grid and sub-watershed scale, the primary drivers for ecosystem services were the normalized vegetation index and digital elevation model. The main driver for TOSs was the mean annual temperature at the kilometer grid scale, while it was the mean annual evapotranspiration at the sub-watershed scale. Based on the supply levels of ecosystem services, the study area could be divided into five distinct ecosystem service bundles, i.e., mountain ecological balance zone, forest ecological conservation zone, urban forest maintenance zone, ecologically sensitive zone, and ecological risk zone. All bundles exhibited both spatial heterogeneity and cross-scale variations. We integrated the cross-scale variations of four representative ecosystem services and their complex interactions and driving mechanisms in Shaoguan City into spatial planning to facilitate the sustainable ecosystem management across multiple scales, which could offer valuable references for the construction of ecological civilization in other regions.

Effects of land use change and crop rotation practices on farmland ecosystem service valuation

Farmland can provide various ecosystem services such as food production, groundwater recharge, and carbon storage. However, the overall value of farmland ecosystem services and differences in their spatial distribution are rarely studied, particularly with regard to farmland with crop rotations. In this study, we developed an assessing framework for appraising the overall value of ecosystem services of farmland with crop rotations on the basis of Costanza’s global ecosystem service valuation method. Changhua County in central Taiwan is used as a case study to estimate the impact of land use change on its farmland ecosystem services. We also applied the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model to analyze the spatial distribution of individual ecosystem services. Results from the global ecosystem service value method indicates that land use change in the study area caused a steady decline in overall farmland ecosystem service value between 1981 and 2021. However, if the practice of farmland crop rotation is included, the proposed method for evaluating ecosystem services of farmland indicate an increase in total ecosystem service value (ESV). The overall ecosystem services of farmland with crop rotations assessed was between 1.27 and 1.69-fold higher than the gross domestic product (GDP) for farming in the region and between 17 and 45.3-fold higher than the agricultural expenditure reported by the local government. The findings of this study also suggest local government can reference the spatial distributions of ecosystem service to dynamically adjust subsidies and resources for farmland, thereby enhancing agricultural governance and achieving sustainability goals.

Measuring uncertainty in ecosystem service correlations as a function of sample size

The ecosystem service literature has drastically expanded since the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, yet the nature of how ecosystem services interact across space is still poorly understood. A key unresolved question is how efforts in sampling (a proxy for data availability) affect the calculation of the interactions or associations among ecosystem services. We contribute to answering this question by estimating a suite of ecosystem services and asking how the values of their interactions – in the form of spatial correlations – change as a function of the sampling rate of the landscape. Specifically, we estimate a set of seven ecosystem services for France (agricultural production potential, biodiversity, carbon storage, livestock grazing potential, net ecosystem productivity, pollination, and soil loss), applying four different measures for biodiversity, seven different methods for carbon storage, and three for pollination. We find that spatial correlations are fairly robust to the sampling rate, supporting the notion that moderate sampling rates across a heterogenous landscape are sufficient to obtain reliable estimates of the average correlation occurring across the landscape. In other words, despite heterogeneity in the spatial distribution of ecosystem services, at sufficient sample sizes we only need to randomly sample ten percent of the landscape to acquire an accurate measure of the correlations between all ecosystem services averaged across the entire landscape. Our results have implications for management, with applications for sampling extent and intensity and the identification of ecosystem service bundles.

Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Rangeland Ecosystem Services Across the Shazand Watershed, Iran

Human interventions and global environmental changes are increasing and threaten ecosystem services (ES) worldwide. Managing ES is a challenging task; it is essential to understand the temporal and spatial distribution of ES and the benefits derived by a human. However, ES variability in time and space has yet to be studied. Therefore, the current study investigates spatiotemporal variations of different ES indicators, individually and in combination, in the Shazand Watershed across three time periods: 1998, 2008, and 2016. Five indicators were selected to assess different dimensions of ES, including plant production, water provision, soil stability, maintenance of habitats and genetic diversity for plant and animal nurseries and reproduction, and recreation potential. We then used multiresolution segmentation to create a spatial composite indicator measuring the integration of the study indicators. SCI was used to describe spatiotemporal variations of ES through time at the subwatershed level. The results indicated that individual ES indicators display spatial variations across space and time. Moreover, comparing the spatial composite indicator across periods showed that all 24 subwatersheds could not supply more ES. However, the areas located in the central and the western part of the watershed appeared to have better ES conditions. According to the results, revising the current management plans and allocating environmental funding would benefit these areas. The results are applicable for future spatial planning of sustainable ecological conservation strategies for the Shazand Watershed and similar regions.

Evaluation and Tradeoff of Ecosystem Services in Jiaozuo

With the continuous development of the economy and society, the demand for land space for human survival has also increased, which means that the pressure on ecosystem services has also been unprecedentedly high, leading to serious problems such as ecological environment deterioration and system function decline, resulting in fierce conflicts between ecological environment protection and human social development. Therefore, the relationship between ecosystem services and economic and social development has become a hot research topic in the field of land ecology. Jiaozuo City is also facing the problem of ecological degradation. In order to achieve coordinated development of ecology, society, and economy, this article analyzes the spatiotemporal changes in land use/cover in Jiaozuo City from 1995 to 2020. The InVEST model is used to evaluate four types of ecosystem services in Jiaozuo City: water production, carbon storage, soil conservation, and nutrient output; Summarize and summarize the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics and evolution laws of ecosystem services, and explore the trade-off and synergistic relationships between ecosystem service functions and their driving factors. The research results indicate that: (1) The main types of land use/cover in Jiaozuo City are arable land (64.5%), forest land (approximately 9.9%), grassland (1.1%), water area (0.6%), and construction land (23.8%). The changes in land use types are relatively small. (2) From 1995 to 2020, the biomass and spatial distribution evolution of the four ecosystem services in Jiaozuo City varied. There are significant interannual differences in water production services, and the spatial distribution of water production in the western region is lower than that in the eastern region. The southern region is lower than the northern region. The interannual variation of nutrient (phosphorus) output is relatively small, and the spatial distribution pattern varies greatly, showing a high and low value clustering distribution pattern. The interannual difference in soil conservation is relatively small. The interannual differences in carbon storage are small, and the annual spatial distribution is irregular. (3) Each ecosystem service is influenced by different natural and social influencing factors, and the contribution rate of natural factors is higher than that of social factors. There is a significant difference in the output capacity of ecosystem services among different land uses/covers, which directly affects the total amount and spatial distribution of ecosystem services. The ecological status of Jiaozuo City is worrying. In the future socio-economic development process, reasonable planning of land use should be carried out to vigorously ensure the parallel and healthy development of social economy and ecological environment.

Ecological function zoning of Nansi Lake Basin in China based on ecosystem service bundles.

Ecological function zoning is an essential means of scientific management of ecosystems. According to the characteristics of ecological function zoning, implementing zoning control is conducive to the governance and protection of the ecological environment and the maintenance of ecological sustainability. This study was conducted with the Nansi Lake Basin as the cross-section for 2018. The Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs model was adopted to assess and measure five ecosystem services, including water yield, crop production, soil conservation, carbon storage and carbon sequestration, and habitat quality. The Self-Organizing Feature Maps neural network was applied to obtain the ecosystem service bundles, and then, the ecological function zones were divided. The results indicated that the overall spatial pattern of ecosystem services in the study zone showed a decreasing schema from east to west; There was a trade-off between supply services and support services and a synergy between supply services and regulatory services; according to the bundling results, the Nansi Lake Basin was divided into four ecological functional zones: the eastern ecological surplus zone, the central crop supply zone, the western ecological balance zone, and the lake habitat protection zone. The results showed that (1) the spatial distribution of various ecosystem services in the Nansi Lake Basin showed spatial heterogeneity and specific regional laws, showing a decreasing pattern from the east to the west as a whole, especially in soil conservation, carbon sequestration, and habitat quality. (2) According to the supply and spatial distribution of each ecosystem service, the Nansi Lake Basin was divided into four ecological functional zones: the eastern ecological surplus zone, the central crop supply zone, the western ecological balance zone, and the lake habitat protection zone. (3) For zone I, provisioning services and regulation services were in synergy. For zone II and zone III, the provisioning service had a trade-off relationship with the regulation service and the supporting service. For zone IV, supporting services were trade-offs not only with provisioning services but also with regulating services. In general, the trade-offs between ecosystem service in the Nansi Lake Basin were stronger than the synergies, and the overall benefits of ecosystem services were smaller. Relying on the perspective of the ecosystem service bundles, at the county level, this study provided an analysis of the trade-offs and synergies among ecosystem services in the Nansi Lake Basin, which helped formulate the management plan for the corresponding region and provided the appropriate recommendations for regional habitat conservation and restoration.

Differentiated factors drive the spatial heterogeneity of ecosystem services in Xinjiang Autonomous Region, China

Exploring the driving factors of changing ecosystem services is critical for supply capacity maintaining and ecological management zoning. Xinjiang of Northwest China, is considered one of the most fragile ecological environment areas. However, studies on how ecosystem services’ driving forces respond to the environmental conditions of Xinjiang are still insufficient, especially in sub–regions with considerable spatial heterogeneity. Based on 106 counties across Xinjiang, we employed models of the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) and Revised Wind Erosion Equation (RWEQ) to quantify four essential ecosystem services (carbon storage, habitat quality, and sand fixation and water yield). Then, we investigated the spatial distribution of four ecosystem services and drivers at the county scale in 2020 by using multi–scale geographically weighted regression (MGWR). The results showed that the spatial distribution of ecosystem services is higher in the north and lower in the south, and hotspots and high–value ecosystem services areas were consistent. Precipitation, temperature, and fractional vegetation cover were the dominant factors influencing the four ecosystem services. Therefore, regulating climate and increasing vegetation will maximize the improvement of regional ecosystem services in Xinjiang. Significant differences exist in the counties of the type, intensity, and direction of ecosystem services drivers. The correlation between carbon storage, habitat quality and fractional vegetation cover was more robust stronger in the south. Water yield was more closely related to fractional vegetation cover in southern Xinjiang. Under different ecological and social conditions, the impact of driving forces on ecosystem services showed different changing trends. Three suggestions for improving ecosystem services management were proposed based on our results. The comparative analysis of the driving factors of county ecosystem services in this study will help to formulate differentiated ecological protection policies and promote a sustainable supply of ecosystem services in Xinjiang. In the future, it is necessary to strengthen the long-term monitoring and evaluation of ecosystem services and the research on the interaction of multiple drivers.

Experimental evidence of increased carcass removal along roads by facultative scavengers.

Investigating the spatial response of scavenging behaviors to roads may help in understanding the relevance of this overlooked ecosystem service. Roads can provide suitable foraging sites for scavengers, whether they are obligate or facultative. However, only a few studies have investigated the impact of roads on the spatial distribution of scavenging behavior, and most of them focused on areas inhabited by species-rich communities of obligate scavengers. In this study, we investigated this issue in a poorly productive arid environment in southern Tunisia where the main facultative scavengers were stray dogs. Our experimental design was based on the monitoring of carcasses placed at different distances from the road. We found that carcasses were removed faster along roadsides than farther away, showing the important role of road traffic in shaping the spatial distribution of scavenging activity. These results differ from those found by similar experimental studies also conducted on facultative scavengers but in more productive environments. Indeed, given the scarcity of food resources in the arid study area, scavengers seemed to depend largely on road-kills for food, thus concentrating their foraging activity along the roads in accordance with the predictions of the optimal foraging theory. Overall, our findings represent clear evidence that roads and related traffic can alter the spatial distribution of ecosystem services, with potential implications for food webs and ecosystem functioning. They also stress the need for accounting for scavengers when performing road-kill surveys, but also considering road effects when carrying out monitoring of the activity of scavengers.

Predicting the minimum scale of urban ecological space based on socio-ecological systems analysis

Determining the minimum scale of ecological space that is sufficient for sustainable urban development is one of the difficult tasks in quantitative urban ecological research. In this study, we first expounded on the basic concept of the minimum scale of urban ecological space and reviewed the research status. Supported by the theory of “aggregation and dispersion” in landscape ecology, we converted the task of scale prediction into spatial accounting-oriented scenario simulation. We then proposed a method to predict the scale, based on an analysis of socio-ecological systems, and constructed a research framework of “construction constraint analysis - ecological importance evaluation scale prediction.” The rules to discriminate the optimal scenario and the characteristics indices of the network were also proposed. Second, we selected Shenzhen City as a representative study object and constructed 87 ecological networks under different scenarios, based on the construction constraints and spatial distribution of ecosystem services, identified from the multi-source data in the study area. By calculating and comparing the network efficiency and clustering coefficient, we concluded that the network under the m39 scenario has the optimal connection efficiency and structural stability. We finally obtained a threshold of 48.85 % as the minimum proportion of ecological land in Shenzhen. We expect that this result can help improve the rationality of decision-making in urban spatial planning and governance.

Variations in the Value and Trade-Offs/Synergies of Ecosystem Services on Topographic Gradients in Qinghai Province, China

Qinghai Province is an important part of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. It is the birthplace of the Yangtze, Yellow, and Lancang (Mekong) Rivers, the recharge area for China’s freshwater resources. With different terrains, the temperature, daylight, and precipitation of Qinghai Province are widely variable. Consequently, the topography largely determines the spatial distribution of ecosystem services (ESs) and affects their interaction. Studying the impact of topography on the spatial-temporal evolution of ESs and their interaction is of great significance for land-use planning and the ecological civilization in Qinghai Province. To explore the spatial distribution and evolution characteristics of ESV and trade-offs/synergies among ESs in Qinghai Province, we considered topography (elevation, slope, RDLS, and terrain niche index) in 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020 using the ArcGIS software and the equivalent factor method. The results were then corrected using various parameters. The results showed that the ESV of Qinghai Province decreased from 129,573.99 million USD in 1980 to 129,155.85 million USD in 2000, and then increased rapidly to 142,682.97 million USD in 2020. The spatial distribution of ESV is characterized by high in the south and east and low in the northwest. The geographical distribution and temporal variation of ESV and trade-offs/synergies of ES pairs show distinct vertical zonality, and the relationship between ESs showed different patterns on different topographic gradients. Hence, priority should be given to the ecological protection of high-altitude areas, and the implementation of ecological migration continued. The implementation of protection measures considering the ecological conditions under different topographic gradients can ensure more appropriate ecosystem management and more sensible decision-making.

Remote Sensing Quantitative Research on Soil Erosion in the Upper Reaches of the Minjiang River

The upper reaches of the Minjiang River are an important ecological barrier to the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and Chengdu Plain. They are also the water resources of Chengdu Plain. To protect the headwater ecosystems, it is necessary to carry out quantitative research on soil erosion in this area. This study mainly applies the USLE model to quantitatively evaluate the spatial distribution of ecosystem services on soil erosion and soil conservation. The evaluation is based on the following data: remote sensing image, meteorological radiation data, DEM, soil types, physical and chemical properties of the soil, vegetation types, and land use status. With advanced Earth observation technology, satellite remote sensing images about terrestrial vegetation and other evaluation parameters can be obtained in real time. The seasonal changes in vegetation coverage and the physical and chemical properties of soil have been fully considered. The results show that 1) the value of rainfall erosivity factor (R) is between 85.02 and 588.69 MJ•mm/(hm2•h•a), and its spatial distribution is consistent with that of annual average precipitation. 2) Soil erodibility factor (K) is between 0.12 and 0.30 (t hm2 h) •(hm2 MJ mm), showing zonal distribution, and is related to soil types. 3) Slope length and gradient factor (LS) range from 0.03 to 46.16. It is positively correlated with topographic relief. 4) Soil conservation measure factor (P) ranges from 0 to 1 and is determined by the land use and coverage. 5) Rainfall has a dominant impact on soil erosion, and the study area with violent and intense erosion reaches 17,302.17 km2, accounting for 69.81% of the total area. The soil conservation amount (T) in the study area is 283.45 million tons, and the ecosystem services are worth 434.48 million yuan. 6) RS and GIS techniques enable quick estimation. However, this assessment contains considerable uncertainty. It is still hard to reveal the physical process of soil erosion with empirical models.

Ecosystem services at risk in Italy from coastal inundation under extreme sea level scenarios up to 2050: A spatially resolved approach supporting climate change adaptation.

According to the latest projections of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, at the end of the century, coastal zones and low-lying ecosystems will be increasingly threatened by rising global mean sea levels. In order to support integrated coastal zone management and advance the basic "source-pathway-receptor-consequence" approach focused on traditional receptors (e.g., population, infrastructure, and economy), a novel risk framework is proposed able to evaluate potential risks of loss or degradation of ecosystem services (ESs) due to projected extreme sea level scenarios in the Italian coast. Three risk scenarios for the reference period (1969-2010) and future time frame up to 2050 under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 are developed by integrating extreme water-level projections related to changing climate conditions, with vulnerability information about the topography, distance from coastlines, and presence of artificial protections. A risk assessment is then performed considering the potential effects of the spatial-temporal variability of inundations and land use on the supply level and spatial distribution of ESs. The results of the analysis are summarized into a spatially explicit risk index, useful to rank coastal areas more prone to ESs losses or degradation due to coastal inundation at the national scale. Overall, the Northern Adriatic coast is scored at high risk of ESs loss or degradation in the future scenario. Other small coastal strips with medium risk scores are the Eastern Puglia coast, Western Sardinia, and Tuscany's coast. The ESs Coastal Risk Index provides an easy-to-understand screening assessment that could support the prioritization of areas for coastal adaptation at the national scale. Moreover, this index allows the direct evaluation of the public value of ecosystems and supports more effective territorial planning and environmental management decisions. In particular, it could support the mainstreaming of ecosystem-based approaches (e.g., ecological engineering and green infrastructures) to mitigate the risks of climate change and extreme events while protecting ecosystems and biodiversity. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2022;18:1564-1577. © 2021 SETAC.

Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Environmental Degradation by Using Landscape Approach in The Riparian Area of Lake Rawapening

Lake Rawapening is a unique landscape that naturally provides provisioning, regulatory, cultural, and supporting ecosystem services. On the other side, Rawapening Lake is an open access area that is subject to be vulnerable to any economic activities that lead to environmental degradation. This study aims to identify the spatial distribution of ecosystem services provided in part of the riparian area of Rawapening Lake using a geomorphological approach with detailed scale mapping and identify environmental degradation that occurred in the area in two time periods, 2016 and 2020. Data analysis was carried out using Scoring and Pairwise Comparison techniques to produce Ecosystem Services Index and Ecosystem Services Composite Index values presented in a Spatio-temporal manner. The results of the analysis using the Geographic Information System (GIS) show that the dynamics of the landscape that occurred in 2016 and 2020 caused changes in the provision of ecosystem services in terms of the area. In these two periods, the Landscape Lake Rawapening had the highest Ecosystem Services Composite Index(IKJE). However, the threat of environmental degradation caused by anthropogenic activities is always lurking and can lead to a decrease in the quality and quantity of the provision of ecosystem services from the landscape. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a study on the physical and socio-economic characteristics of the study area to assist policymakers in formulating the determination of lake riparian area and zoning of related resource use.

Terrain gradient variations in the ecosystem services value of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is an important ecological function area in the world, but its ecosystem is very fragile owing to the alpine environment. Owing to varying landforms exhibiting significant spatial differences in terms of temperature, light, soil and water conservation capacity, topography largely determines the spatial distribution of ecosystem services in areas with complex natural conditions. Studying the impact of topography on ecosystem services is important for efficient land use and ecosystem management. However, the effects of topography on ecosystem services have rarely been studied in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. In this study, using land use data from 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020, the ecosystem services value (ESV) of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau was estimated, and its spatiotemporal variation characteristics were analyzed using the ESV equivalent factor method. Spatial autocorrelation was introduced to analyze the spatial dependency between ecosystem services and topography. The results showed that the ESV of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau decreased from $1,700,028 million in 1980 to $1,656,0 38 million in 1990 and then steadily increased to $1,678,294 million in 2020. Moreover, the spatial distribution of the average ESV was mainly characterized by high values in the southeast region and low values in the northwest region. The ESV exhibited different geographical distributions and temporal variation characteristics across the topographic gradient, and a significant spatial dependence was observed between the average ESV and topography. Hence, priority should be given to the ecological protection of high-altitude areas, such as high mountain valley regions of the plateau.

Detecting and mapping tree crowns based on convolutional neural network and Google Earth images

Mapping tree crown is critical for estimating the functional and spatial distribution of ecosystem services. However, accurate and up-to-date urban crown mapping remains a challenge due to the time-consuming nature of field sampling and spatial heterogeneity. Another challenge is the data cost, which is always a concern for low-cost processing of forest maps on large scales. Here, we developed a novel working framework by integrating an advanced deep learning technology, the Mask Region-based Convolutional Neural Network (Mask R-CNN) model with Google Earth images to detect tree crown cover in New York’s Central Park, which is a typical testbed for an urban forest area with highly heterogeneous tree crown cover. The results indicated that the tree number detection rate estimated by the Mask R-CNN crown detection model was 82.8% and the crown area detection rate was 81.8% for the entire study area. The model detected isolated trees and closed forest trees areas with a recall of 87.5% and 81.6% of the tree numbers, respectively. The analysis indicates that the tree crown detection model could accurately detect tree crowns under highly complex environments and demonstrates great potential to map urban tree crown covers.

Land use changes in Zhangjiakou from 2005 to 2025 and the importance of ecosystem services.

Changes in local land use affect regional ecological services, development planning, and optimal use of space. We analyzed the effects of changes in land use from 2000 to 2025 on the spatial distribution of ecosystem services using CLUS-S modeling to evaluate ecosystem functions in Zhangjiakou, China. We found that the urban ecosystem area in Zhangjiakou increased and farmland decreased between 2000–2025. Water conservation was relatively high and was concentrated in the nature reserves of southern Zhangjiakou. Soil conservation was mainly distributed in eastern and southern counties. The results of the CLUE-S model showed that the relative operating characteristics of the six land use types were > 0.70, and the logistic regression equation was able to successfully explain the distribution pattern of the different types of land use.

Evolution of ecosystem service value in rural regions based on geographical scope of entities: A case study of Nanjing, China

Rural areas have very important ecological service functions. This study investigated the evolution of ecosystem services value (ESV) in rural regions based on the physical geographical scope of rural areas. The replacement value method, shadow price method, precipitation stock method, quantitative measurement by Remote Sensing and Carnegie-Ames-Stanford approach (CASA) model calculations were used to analyze the evolution of ESV (Nutrient cycling, Maintaining atmospheric balance, Organic matter production, Water conservation) in Nanjing's rural regions between 1985 and 2016. The results show that: (1) From 1985 to 2000, all types of rural ESV showed a trend of decline. From 2000 to 2016, all ESV except for water conservation continued to decrease. (2) In the first stage, areas with large losses in rural ESV were mainly concentrated in southerly, southwesterly, and southeasterly directions. In the second stage, only the northerly and northwesterly directions had increased, whereas all other directions had decreased by varying extents. (3) During the stage of township industrialization, ESV were significantly affected by land use changes in rural areas. During the stage of rapid urbanization, urban expansion had a greater impact on rural ESV. Further studies reveal that rural ecosystem service changes are also influenced by deeper factors, with land use change and excessive nutrient loading as direct drivers significantly affecting rural ecosystem service change processes, and economic development and population growth as indirect drivers changing the spatial distribution of ecosystem services by affecting land use patterns and ecosystem quality. In conclusion, we combined geographical spatial analysis with ecological thinking to provide support for the maintenance of rural ESV and sustainable development.

Identifying the impacts of natural and human factors on ecosystem service in the Yangtze and Yellow River Basins

The Yangtze River Basin (YZRB) and Yellow River Basin (YRB) are important ecological regions in China. In recent decades, intense climate change and human activities have altered the natural landscapes of both basins and degraded their ecosystem functions. This study focused on clarifying the major factors influencing the ecosystem services (ESs) in different regions of China, which will be key to manage ecosystems sustainably. Five ESs, including water yield, carbon storage, soil conservation, water purification and habitat quality were selected for mapping. The geographical detector model was used to analyze the independent and joint effects of driving factors, and the spatial changes in driving factors were expressed using geographically weighted regression model. Results showed that (1) all five ESs decreased from southeast to northwest in the YRB but had an irregular distribution in the YZRB. (2) Precipitation and woodland proportion were dominant factors for total ecosystem services in both basins, followed by temperature, slope, and human activity intensity in the YRB, and temperature, human activity intensity, and population density in the YZRB. The combined effects of the driving factors were much higher than the individual effects in both basins (3) Natural factors (e.g., precipitation, slope, and woodland proportion). exerted positive effects in most areas of both basins. Human factors (e.g., GDP, human activity intensity, and built-up land proportion) had negative effects, with an uneven spatial distribution. Overall, natural factors promoted the formation and spatial distribution of ESs, and their direct impacts on total ecosystem services were insignificant in the short term. The impact of land-use changes played a leading role in joint impacts. In the YRB, the increase of woodland had a positive effect on ESs; the continuous growth of build-up land led to the degradation of ESs in the YZRB. Accordingly, adhering to the program of Grain for Green and changing the mode of economic development are crucial for future development. A comparative analysis of the driving factors of ESs in different regions provides a scientific basis for understanding and optimizing management policies.