Spatial Discrimination Research Articles

A Dramaturgical Position to Reveal the Affect of Space on Discriminatory Judgments of Behaviour

AbstractBuilt environment disciplines investigate how spaces affect discriminatory judgments between community members through a body of knowledge called discriminatory design. Spatial-discriminatory events occur in various ways, however, they are more potently identified and studied in relation to the static attributes of people and space; how people look, or where they are in relation to space. This paper answers calls from scholars for an alternative position to investigate how spaces affect judgments of people’s behaviour. The paper builds and rationalises a theoretical hypothesis formed through Goffman’s dramaturgy which is tested and refined through a survey-experiment. The study offers an alternative theoretical position for researchers that aim to bring the behavioural dimension of spatial discrimination into focus.

A spatial hue smartphone-based colorimetric detection and discrimination of carmine and carminic acid in food products based on differential adsorptivity

A novel, portable, disposable, affordable, and environmentally friendly paper-based analytical device (PAD) was designed for on-site determination of carmine and carminic acid. This platform utilized paper test strips with a chitosan coating as an adsorption layer, which was characterized using scanning electron microscope, energy-dispersive X-ray analysis, and water contact angle measurement. Carmine and carminic acid could be efficiently adsorbed on chitosan-coated paper test strips, producing distinct colors that could be captured using a smartphone camera without the need for an elution step. Notably, by utilizing the Hue component of the HSL model, it was possible to differentiate between carmine and carminic acid, confirming their presence in a sample. Furthermore, the color saturation intensity changed in a concentration-dependent manner, allowing for the determination of carmine and carminic acid concentrations in the ranges of 200–800 μg/mL and 20–100 μg/mL, respectively. Additionally, the created test strip could be used to measure the percentage of carminic acid in the presence of carmine. The developed PAD enabled the quantification of carmine in various food samples without the need for reagents or complex equipment. The environmental impact of this method was found to be positive based on assessments using GAPI and AGREE tools.

Counter Home: Unravelling the Socio-Spatial Dynamics of Hijra Dwellings of Khulna, Bangladesh

Amidst limited social acceptance and scant governmental and non-governmental support for third gender communities in Bangladesh, this paper explores the intricate relationship between the conception of hijra and its profound impact on redefining the notion of home. In the queer tropics, hijra communities form a unique identity within South Asia’s urban fabric. Employing ethnographic methods and spatial analysis, this multidisciplinary study investigates the hijra home-making process in Khulna, Bangladesh, shedding light on their lived experiences. It unravels the complex interplay of tropical architecture leading to their transformation into, and stigmatisation as, hijras, investigating the spatial implications of their stigma in the organisation of household spaces based on hijra notions of publicness-privateness, spatial sequencing/order, layering, and hierarchy. The formal articulation of homes and their integration into the larger urban scale signifies a distinctive counter-spatial culture within this marginalised community, which acts to counter prevailing ideas of stability, ownership, and family within the concept of home. This counter-culture, as the paper unveils, makes the hijra home dynamics a process of socio-spatial transaction where gender identities manifest and are subverted/shaped by the domestic space. The findings of the paper enrich our understanding of the diverse spatial ways social discriminations are interwoven into the ordinary fabric of contemporary urban living in the tropical city of Khulna.

Public firms on an international border: A model of spatial price discrimination

This paper uniquely examines an international mixed oligopoly in a model of spatial price discrimination. It isolates the importance of the location of the border showing a variety of equilibria depending on the nationality and placement of the private rivals. While the presence of a public firm often improves domestic welfare, it need not. Moreover, a prisoner's dilemma can exist in which each country would benefit from the privatization of both public firms but neither country has a unilateral incentive to privatize. The implications are discussed.

An integrated approach for mechanical fault diagnosis using maximum mean square discrepancy representation and CNN-based mixed information fusion

Bearings are an essential component of modern industry and cross-domain diagnosis of bearings holds significant importance. However, in practical applications, issues such as insufficient training data and differences between equipment present challenges. Transfer learning has become one of the effective methods to address these problems. This article proposes a fault diagnosis method that combines maximum mean square discrepancy (MMSD) measurement with the convolutional neural network (CNN) with mixed information (MIXCNN). MIXCNN enhances spatial position discrimination through deep convolution and achieves cross-channel information interaction using traditional convolution. The introduction of residual connections reduces information loss, while increasing network depth focuses on highly distinguishable features. MMSD constructs a metric that comprehensively reflects the mean and variance information of data samples in the reproducing kernel Hilbert space, thereby enhancing domain confusion. Experimental results show that this method achieves high diagnostic accuracy in various transfer tasks, with a maximum accuracy of 99.29%, providing reliable support for bearing fault diagnosis.

Object and spatial discrimination makes weakly supervised local feature better

Local feature extraction plays a crucial role in numerous critical visual tasks. However, there remains room for improvement in both descriptors and keypoints, particularly regarding the discriminative power of descriptors and the localization precision of keypoints. To address these challenges, this study introduces a novel local feature extraction pipeline named OSDFeat (Object and Spatial Discrimination Feature). OSDFeat employs a decoupling strategy, training descriptor and detection networks independently. Inspired by semantic correspondence, we propose an Object and Spatial Discrimination ResUNet (OSD-ResUNet). OSD-ResUNet captures features from the feature map that differentiate object appearance and spatial context, thus enhancing descriptor performance. To further improve the discriminative capability of descriptors, we propose a Discrimination Information Retained Normalization module (DIRN). DIRN complementarily integrates spatial-wise normalization and channel-wise normalization, yielding descriptors that are more distinguishable and informative. In the detection network, we propose a Cross Saliency Pooling module (CSP). CSP employs a cross-shaped kernel to aggregate long-range context in both vertical and horizontal dimensions. By enhancing the saliency of keypoints, CSP enables the detection network to effectively utilize descriptor information and achieve more precise localization of keypoints. Compared to the previous best local feature extraction methods, OSDFeat achieves Mean Matching Accuracy of 79.4% in local feature matching task, improving by 1.9% and achieving state-of-the-art results. Additionally, OSDFeat achieves competitive results in Visual Localization and 3D Reconstruction. The results of this study indicate that object and spatial discrimination can improve the accuracy and robustness of local feature, even in challenging environments. The code is available at https://github.com/pandaandyy/OSDFeat.

Comparison of horizontal plane auditory spatial discrimination abilities and testing methods in patients with symmetrical sensorineural hearing loss

Objective: To evaluate auditory spatial discrimination capabilities in patients with mild to moderately severe symmetrical sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) and to compare the impact of different psychophysical testing methods on Minimum Audible Angle (MAA) and test duration. Methods: A total of 105 symmetrical SNHL patients aged from 18 to 60 years old were enrolled from April to July 2023, including 56 males and 49 females. They were divided into three groups based on PTA: mild, moderate, and moderately severe hearing loss, with 35 individuals in each group. Additionally, a control group of 35 individuals with normal hearing was tested, including 18 males and 17 females. Participants underwent four distinct psychophysical discrimination tests: the block up-down, 1-up/1-down, 1-up/2-down, and 1-up/3-down procedures. We recorded the MAA and test duration for each. We employed repeated measures of ANOVA to compare the MAA and test duration across different methods and groups, and Pearson's correlation to assess the relationship between MAA and degree of hearing loss. Results: MAA of sound localization in patients with symmetrical SNHL was significantly positively correlated with the degree of hearing loss (r=0.59, P<0.01). Significant deterioration in MAA was observed as hearing loss progressed to the moderate level (PTA≥35 dBHL, P<0.01). The testing methods significantly influenced MAA and testing duration (F=24.02, P<0.01; F=75.56, P<0.01) and the 1-up/1-down method was the quickest, averaging only (0.69±0.32) mins. Conclusions: The horizontal plane auditory spatial discrimination abilities in patients with symmetrical SNHL is impaired progressively with increasing hearing loss, notably beyond moderate hearing loss levels. Different psychophysical methods influence both MAA and test duration, the quicker 1-up/1-down method is recommended for assessing MAA in symmetrical SNHL patients.

Psychometric evaluation of high-resolution electrotactile interface for conveying 3D spatial information

This study presents a detailed psychometric evaluation of a novel high-resolution electrotactile interface, which is developed to provide users with 3D spatial information and facilitate enhanced interaction with a Supernumerary Robotic Limb (SRL). The research introduces a novel electrotactile system that employs a multi-pad electrode configuration on the thigh, aimed at delivering intuitive feedback to users about the position of the SRL in a three-dimensional space. The interface's effectiveness was assessed through a series of psychometric tests, including static spatial discrimination, target-reaching with spatial feedback, frequency discrimination, and combined spatial/frequency modulation. The key findings demonstrate that participants could differentiate between 30 electrode pads with an average success rate of 62.7% when they were activated statically, while in the dynamic target-reaching task, the success rate increased to 88.1%. Frequency discrimination tests further revealed that four frequency levels could be distinguished with 86.0% success rate in single-pad feedback while the performance decreased to 74.3% in multi-pad distributed feedback. Finaly, in the closed-loop test with mixed spatial and frequency modulation, participants achieved an overall success rate of 78.8% in target reaching across 10 × 4 discrete 2D space. These results highlight the interface’s capability to transmit high-resolution spatial information through electrotactile feedback, offering a foundation for future applications in tactile-based navigation and control systems.

Learning competence of the temperate facultative cleaner wrasse Thalassoma pavo (Labridae).

Cleaner fishes remove parasites from other fishes called "clients," thereby contributing to a healthier ecosystem. Although the behavior and learning abilities of dedicated and tropical cleaner fishes have been broadly studied, a limited number of studies investigated the behavior of facultative and temperate cleaner fishes and, to the best of our knowledge, none focused on their cognitive abilities. Here, we tested the learning abilities of a species of temperate facultative cleaner, the ornate wrasse Thalassoma pavo in laboratory conditions, based on two problems. These two problems, or tasks, are relevant in two different contexts: the first one, deemed as mutualistically relevant, the cue-based discrimination task, and the second one, the spatial-based discrimination task, which is relevant in a non-cleaning context, when fish navigate through their environment to find food and return to their territories. We found that T. pavo individuals were able to solve these two tasks but excelled at the spatial task rather than with the cue discrimination. The same individuals were also challenged to learn the reverse protocol of these tasks and were again most successful in learning the reverse spatial discrimination problem, but not the cue. Contrary to the dedicated cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus, this temperate facultative cleaner wrasse is slower to learn mutualistic relevant problems but competent in solving spatially derived problems. This may be due to the specific demands of their socio-ecological environment, with facultative cleaners having a greater component of non-mutualistic skills (spatial component), which prepares them to search for alternative food sources if necessary (e.g., feeding on the substrate) or even to expand territories more easily and less prepared to deal with mutualistic exchanges compared to dedicated cleaners that specialize to become increasingly socially competent.

Amyloid-β deposition in basal frontotemporal cortex is associated with selective disruption of temporal mnemonic discrimination.

Cerebral amyloid-beta (Aβ) accumulation, a hallmark pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), precedes clinical impairment by two to three decades. However, it is unclear whether Aβ contributes to subtle memory deficits observed during the preclinical stage. The heterogenous emergence of Aβ deposition may selectively impact certain memory domains, which rely on distinct underlying neural circuits. In this context, we tested whether specific domains of mnemonic discrimination, a neural computation essential for episodic memory, exhibit specific deficits related to early Aβ deposition. We tested 108 cognitively unimpaired human older adults (66% female) who underwent 18F-florbetapir positron emission tomography (Aβ-PET), and a control group of 35 young adults, on a suite of mnemonic discrimination tasks taxing object, spatial, and temporal domains. We hypothesized that Aβ pathology would be selectively associated with temporal discrimination performance due to Aβ's propensity to accumulate in the basal frontotemporal cortex, which supports temporal processing. Consistent with this hypothesis, we found a dissociation in which generalized age-related deficits were found for object and spatial mnemonic discrimination, while Aβ-PET levels were selectively associated with deficits in temporal mnemonic discrimination. Further, we found that higher Aβ-PET levels in medial orbitofrontal and inferior temporal cortex, regions supporting temporal processing, were associated with greater temporal mnemonic discrimination deficits, pointing to the selective vulnerability of circuits related to temporal processing early in AD progression. These results suggest that Aβ accumulation within basal frontotemporal regions may disrupt temporal mnemonic discrimination in preclinical AD, and may serve as a sensitive behavioral biomarker of emerging AD progression.

Rat anterior cingulate neurons responsive to rule or strategy changes are modulated by the hippocampal theta rhythm and sharp-wave ripples.

To better understand neural processing during adaptive learning of stimulus-response-reward contingencies, we recorded synchrony of neuronal activity in anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and hippocampal rhythms in male rats acquiring and switching between spatial and visual discrimination tasks in a Y-maze. ACC population activity as well as single unit activity shifted shortly after task rule changes or just before the rats adopted different task strategies. Hippocampal theta oscillations (associated with memory encoding) modulated an elevated proportion of rule-change responsive neurons (70%), but other neurons that were correlated with strategy-change, strategy value and reward-rate were not. However, hippocampal sharp wave-ripples modulated significantly higher proportions of rule-change, strategy-change and reward-rate responsive cells during post-session sleep but not pre-session sleep. This suggests an underestimated mechanism for hippocampal mismatch and contextual signals to facilitate ACC to detect contingency changes for cognitive flexibility, a function that is attenuated after it is damaged.

Late-term moderate prenatal alcohol exposure impairs tactile, but not spatial, discrimination in a T-maze continuous performance task in juvenile rats

Existing maze apparatuses used in rodents often exclusively assess spatial discriminability as a means to evaluate learning impairments. Spatial learning in such paradigms is reportedly spared by moderate prenatal alcohol exposure in rats, suggesting that spatial reinforcement alone is insufficient to delineate executive dysfunction, which consistently manifests in humans prenatally-exposed to alcohol. To address this, we designed a single-session continuous performance task in the T-maze apparatus that requires rats to discriminate within and between simultaneously-presented spatial (left or right) and tactile (sandpaper or smooth) stimuli for food reinforcement across four sequential discrimination stages: simple discrimination, intradimensional reversal 1, extradimensional shift, and intradimensional reversal 2. This design incorporates elements of working memory, attention, and goal-seeking behavior which collectively contribute to the executive function construct. Here, we found that rats prenatally-exposed to alcohol performed worse in both the tactile intradimensional reversal and extradimensional shift; alternatively, rats prenatally-exposed to alcohol acquired the extradimensional shift faster when shifting from the tactile to spatial dimension. In line with previous work, moderate prenatal alcohol exposure spared specifically spatial discrimination in this paradigm. However, when tactile stimuli were mapped into the spatial dimension, rats prenatally-exposed to alcohol required more trials to discriminate between the dimensions. We demonstrate that tactile stimuli can be operantly employed in a continuous performance T-maze task to detect discriminatory learning impairments in rats exposed to moderate prenatal alcohol. The current paradigm may be useful for assessing features of executive dysfunction in rodent models of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.

The role of quantitative electroencephalography in diagnostic workup of mental disorders.

Electroencephalography (EEG) is a non-invasive diagnostic tool, enabling us to assess the electrical activity of the brain and its disturbance in a great number of psychiatric conditions. This paper provides a narrative overview of the most recent advantages of EEG use in various psychiatric disorders that are associated. This article analyses selected psychiatric disorders. We discussed anxiety disorders characterized by chronic fear, dementia leading to cognitive decline, schizophrenia disrupting logical thinking, bipolar affective disorder with alternating episodes of mania and depression, and depression manifested by gradual loss of vital energy. We have shown that EEG testing, by monitoring the electrical activity of the brain, is a helpful tool in identifying specific brain wave patterns associated with these disorders. In the study of mental illness the EEG variant called quantitative EEG (QEEG) is of particular avail as to the spatial discrimination. QEEG is based on digital coding and transformation according to Fourier algorithm. Recently, even more complex methods of EEG data analysis have been implemented, including artificial intelligence (AI), deep learning (DL) and its branch: machine learning (ML). The use of sophisticated EEG postprocessing adds important information about the pathophysiology of mental disorders. More so, EEG/QEEG recording (in particular spectral analysis), if repeated over time may help to follow up the treatment results and to establish a prognosis as to the course of the given condition. Reliability, safety and availability of EEG makes it to be an indispensable tool in modern psychiatry. Use of EEG, QEEG may lead to faster and more precise differential diagnostic workup. Use of EEG/QEEG changes as an objective outcome measure in clinical trials may support the development of personalized pharmacotherapy or psychotherapy.

Multi-Perspective Heterodyne Digital Holography For High-Speed Imaging Of Density Fluctuations In Supersonic Flow

Density fluctuation measurements with high spatio-temporal resolution provide meaningful insights into the dynamics of turbulent structures in shear layers, boundary layers, and disturbances that influence the transition to turbulence. The current contribution presents a new multiple perspective digital holographic imaging technique that aims to resolve high-frequency density fluctuations with spatial discrimination along the line of sight. A key element of the proposed method is the generation of a beamlet array of varying view angles that is spatially overlapped within the measurement zone. We present the first experimental realization of this approach using a 7-element hexagonally packed fly’s eye lens array and analyze results for a pair of mutually perpendicular and axially offset sonic jets. The experimental apparatus also incorporates heterodyne detection with a heterodyne frequency set to 1/4 of the imaging frame rate. The optical system performance is evaluated for a crossing jet flow and key design considerations for the multi-perspective optical system are discussed.

Effects of different types of leisure activities on working memory across the adult lifespan

The aim of the present study was to contrast the potential influence of five independent types of leisure activities (physical, mental, social, cultural, and passive) on working memory in a lifespan sample and in specific stages of adulthood (young, middle-aged, and older adults). A sample of 1652 healthy adults between 21 and 80 years of age participated in the study. Leisure activities were assessed through a lifestyle questionnaire created for the study. Working memory was measured in the verbal and spatial domains using a computerized n-back task that allowed us to reliably measure discrimination and reaction times. Across adulthood, mental (computer use and hobbies) and social leisure activities predicted greater verbal and spatial working memory discrimination; mental (reading) and social activities predicted faster verbal working memory; and mental (computer use) and physical activities predicted faster spatial working memory. In young adults, mental (computer use) and social activities were associated with greater verbal and spatial working memory performance. In middle-aged adults, physical and mental activities (computer use) were associated with greater working memory performance. In older adults, physical, mental (hobbies), and social activities were associated with greater working memory performance. Leisure activities can enhance working memory discrimination and speed independent of individuals’ age.

Relations between tactile sensitivity of the finger, arm, and cheek skin over the lifespan showing decline only on the finger.

Touch sensitivity generally declines with age, contributing to loss of manual dexterity and tactile function. We investigated how touch changes over the lifespan, using different tests and on three body sites. We used a classical test of force detection sensitivity, where calibrated monofilaments were applied passively to the right index finger pad, forearm, and cheek. In addition, at the index, we used an active touch spatial discrimination task, developed by our group. Spatial discrimination was estimated through participants' ability to evaluate the distance between parallel bands printed on acrylic plates. Data were collected from 96 healthy women, aged 20-75 years. Force detection and tactile spatial discrimination on the index deteriorated significantly with age; however, no change was found for tactile detection on the forearm or cheek. Tactile detection on the cheek remained remarkably highly sensitive throughout life. There was a significant positive relationship between force detection and spatial discrimination on the index. Further, force detection on the forearm was significantly associated with detection on the index and cheek. Our results suggest a decrease in touch perception with age on the index finger pad, yet a preservation of tactile sensitivity in hairy skin. This opens discussion about the impact of daily activities upon the glabrous hand skin and on the function of hairs in tactile sensitivity. We highlight the need for new methods in evaluating tactile sensitivity on hairy skin.

Impact of aging on crossmodal attention switching

Previous studies on crossmodal visual-auditory attention switching using a spatial discrimination task showed performance costs when the target modality changed relative to when it repeated. The present study (n = 42 for each age group) examined age-related changes in crossmodal attention switching by asking young (age range 19 to 30 years old) and older (age range 64 to 80 years old) participants to respond to unimodal central cues and bimodal lateralized stimuli. The participants’ task was to indicate the location of the target in the relevant modality using button presses. Results showed general attention switch costs. Additionally, we found no specific age-related increase of attention switch costs (no difference in performance between switch and repetition of target modality), but age-related increased mixing costs (decreased performance for repetition in modality-mixed condition compared to single target modality). Moreover, spatial distraction produced a crossmodal congruency effect, which was only slightly larger in older adults. Taken together, age-related increased mixing costs suggest a general difficulty with maintaining more than one task, but no specific age-related crossmodal impairment in crossmodal attention switching.

Motion-guided spatiotemporal multitask feature discrimination for self-supervised video representation learning

Powerful self-supervised representation models are able to step out of the traditional supervised paradigm and rely merely on unlabeled data to achieve a deep understanding of visual semantic features. However, previous approaches may suffer from background scene bias, making it difficult to perform a comprehensive exploration of video spatiotemporal structure. To address this challenge, this paper proposes a self-supervised video representation learning framework of motion-guided spatiotemporal multitask feature discrimination (MSMFD). The method mainly utilizes the consistency of motion cues between different views to guide the model for spatial and temporal feature similarity discrimination. Specifically, the model first selects video clips with large motion amplitudes based on the collected optical flow maps. Subsequently, the model introduces an instance discrimination task for overall spatiotemporal structure perception of the video, while a shuffled triplet and an augmented quadruple task are created to further enhance the exploration of intraframe sequence order and local spatial fine-grained. Furthermore, we propose joint motion alignment of spatial, temporal, and spatiotemporal dimensions under different views as a powerful compensation for acquiring motion features. Experimental results demonstrate that our self-supervised method is effective for learning video representations and achieves competitive performance in action recognition and video retrieval tasks compared to other state-of-the-art methods.

A Second-Generation (44-Channel) Suprachoroidal Retinal Prosthesis: A Single-Arm Clinical Trial of Feasibility

To assess the feasibility of a second-generation (44-channel) suprachoroidal retinal prosthesis for provision of functional vision in recipients with end-stage retinitis pigmentosa (RP) over 2.7 years. Prospective, single-arm, unmasked interventional clinical trial. Four participants, with advanced RP and bare-light perception vision. The 44-channel suprachoroidal retinal prosthesis was implanted in the worse-seeing eye. Device stability, functionality, and adverse events were investigated at approximately 12-week intervals up to 140 weeks (2.7 years) postdevice activation. Serious adverse event (SAE) reporting, visual response outcomes, functional vision outcomes, and quality-of-life outcomes. All 4 participants (aged 39-66 years, 3 males) were successfully implanted in 2018, and there were no device-related SAEs over the duration of the study. A mild postoperative subretinal hemorrhage was detected in 2 recipients, which cleared spontaneously within 2weeks. OCT confirmed device stability and position under the macula. Improvements in localization abilities were demonstrated for all 4 participants in screen-based, tabletop, and orientation and mobility tasks. In addition, 3 of 4 participants recorded improvements in motion discrimination and 2 of 4 participants recorded substantial improvements in spatial discrimination and identification of tabletop objects. Participants reported their unsupervised use of the device included exploring new environments, detecting people, and safely navigating around obstacles. A positive effect of the implant on participants' daily lives in their local environments was confirmed by an orientation and mobility assessor and participant self-report. Emotional well-being was not impacted by device implantation or usage. The completed clinical study demonstrates that the suprachoroidal prosthesis raises no safety concerns and provides improvements in functional vision, activities of daily living, and observer-rated quality of life. Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found in the Footnotes and Disclosures at the end of this article.

Failure of senolytic treatment to prevent cognitive decline in a female rodent model of aging.

There are sex differences in vulnerability and resilience to the stressors of aging and subsequent age-related cognitive decline. Cellular senescence occurs as a response to damaging or stress-inducing stimuli. The response includes a state of irreversible growth arrest, the development of a senescence-associated secretory phenotype, and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines associated with aging and age-related diseases. Senolytics are compounds designed to eliminate senescent cells. Our recent work indicates that senolytic treatment preserves cognitive function in aging male F344 rats. The current study examined the effect of senolytic treatment on cognitive function in aging female rats. Female F344 rats (12 months) were treated with dasatinib (1.2 mg/kg) + quercetin (12 mg/kg) or ABT-263 (12 mg/kg) or vehicle for 7 months. Examination of the estrus cycle indicated that females had undergone estropause during treatment. Senolytic treatment may have increased sex differences in behavioral stress responsivity, particularly for the initial training on the cued version of the watermaze. However, pre-training on the cue task reduced stress responsivity for subsequent spatial training and all groups learned the spatial discrimination. In contrast to preserved memory observed in senolytic-treated males, all older females exhibited impaired episodic memory relative to young (6-month) females. We suggest that the senolytic treatment may not have been able to compensate for the loss of estradiol, which can act on aging mechanisms for anxiety and memory independent of cellular senescence.