Spatial Diagrams Research Articles

Russell’s Logicism Through Kantian Spectacles

russell: the Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies n.s. 34 (summer 2014): 79–94 The Bertrand Russell Research Centre, McMaster U. issn 0036–01631; online 1913–8032 c:\users\kenneth\documents\type3401\rj 3401 193 red.docx 2014-05-14 8:54 PM oeviews RUSSELL’S LOGICISM THROUGH KANTIAN SPECTACLES Kevin C. Klement Philosophy / U. Massachusetts–Amherst Amherst, ma 01003, usa klement@philos.umass.edu Anssi Korhonen. Logic as Universal Science: Russell’s Early Logicism and Its Philosophical Context. (History of Analytic Philosophy series) Basingstoke, uk, and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Pp. x + 277. isbn: 978-0-23057700 -8. £55; us$85. his new contribution to Palgrave Macmillan’s popular History of Analytical Philosophy series (edited by Michael Beaney) aims to outline the distinguishing philosophical outlook of Bertrand Russell’s early logicist period, exemplified most notably by Russell’s classic The Principles of Mathematics of 1903. The key themes of the book are Russell’s views in mathematical methodology and mathematical ontology, the universal applicability and nature of logic, and the relationship of logical and mathematical knowledge to the distinction between form and content in ontology and semantics. Throughout, Russell’s views are contrasted with the views of Kant and like-minded philosophers , who in many ways dominated the philosophical landscape prior to the emergence of analytic philosophy. The first chapter, “Russell’s Early Logicism: What Was It About?”, aims to differentiate how Russell understood his logicist project from the rather different aims of other philosophers with whom Russell is often lumped: Frege and logical empiricists such as A. J. Ayer and the members of the Vienna Circle . Korhonen notes aptly that while these thinkers were all in some sense logicists, their logicist aims were quite different: “there were in fact as many logicisms as there were logicists” (p. 21). In contrast to others, it was not principally important for Russell that mathematics be shown to be analytic. Russell gave different accounts of analyticity in different places. When employing a purely Kantian notion of analyticity on which analytic truths must be non-informative, Russell concluded that mathematics and logic were both synthetic à priori. When operating instead with a more Fregean notion of q= 80 Reviews c:\users\kenneth\documents\type3401\rj 3401 193 red.docx 2014-05-14 8:54 PM analyticity, on which all of modern logic counts as analytic, Russell claimed instead that mathematics is analytic. It was important for Russell that the “logic” to which mathematics could be shown to be reduced was the sophisticated and rich symbolic logic developed only at the end of the nineteenth century, not the more sterile syllogistic logics that had come before. Korhonen sees Russell’s project as a natural outgrowth in the increase in rigour brought about in nineteenth-century mathematics by its expansion into such areas as non-Euclidean geometry, and the increased interest in foundational aspects of other areas, such as real analysis. According to Korhonen, the importance of this increase in rigour in mathematics was not exclusively epistemological, but semantic, in that it made it easier to see how best to define certain mathematical concepts, allowing for the first time the definitions in terms of logical constants given by Russell. The relationship between Russell’s philosophy of mathematics and Kant’s looms large in the next two chapters. Chapter 2 delves into the Kantian and Russellian notions of mathematical methodology. Korhonen stresses an often overlooked similarity between Russell and Kant: both believed that the forms of judgment and reasoning used in traditional logic were inadequate to capture the semantic content and distinctive reasoning patterns necessary for mathematics. Citing, for example, the need for “construction postulates” in Euclidean geometry, Kant came to adopt what Korhonen dubs a “construction semantics”: the distinctive meaning or semantic content of mathematical concepts derives from the constructibility of instances of such concepts in pure intuition. Russell’s criticism of Kant’s philosophy of mathematics is often portrayed merely as the observation that more recent researches have shown that spatial diagrams are not necessary in mathematical proof. As Korhonen interprets Kant, however, mathematics requires an appeal to intuition not just in reasoning but for the very meaningfulness of its...

Effect of Shortened Heat Treatment on the Hardness and Microstructure of 320.0 Aluminium Alloy

Abstract Improvement of Al-Si alloys properties in scope of classic method is connected with change of Si precipitations morphology through: using modification of the alloy, maintaining suitable temperature of overheating and pouring process, as well as perfection of heat treatment methods. Growing requirements of the market make it necessary to search after such procedures, which would quickly deliver positive results with simultaneous consideration of economic aspects. Presented in the paper shortened heat treatment with soaking of the alloy at temperature near temperature of solidus could be assumed as the method in the above mentioned understanding of the problem. Such treatment consists in soaking of the alloy to temperature of solutioning, keeping in such temperature, and next, quick quenching in water (20 °C) followed by artificial ageing. Temperature ranges of solutioning and ageing treatments implemented in the adopted testing plan were based on analysis of recorded curves from the ATD method. Obtained results relate to dependencies and spatial diagrams describing effect of parameters of the solutioning and ageing treatments on HB hardness of the investigated alloy and change of its microstructure. Performed shortened heat treatment results in precipitation hardening of the investigated 320.0 alloy, what according to expectations produces increased hardness of the material.

System analysis of the reduction of iron oxides

The parameters of the equilibria that take place during the reduction of iron oxides in the water gas medium (CO-CO2-H2-H2O) in the presence and absence of carbon are calculated. The possibilities of the diagram technique of representing results are discussed. The following two spatial diagrams are plotted: one of them reflects a set of three-phase equilibrium surfaces, and the curved surface in the other diagram consists of a set of six three-phase equilibrium regions separated by four-phase equilibrium lines. The last diagram has a single point that determines the parameters of invariant five-phase equilibrium. A method is proposed to graphically determine possible water gas compositions in equilibrium with the following mixtures: Fe3O4-C, Fe3O4-FeO-C, FeO-C, FeO-Fe(C)-C, Fe(C)-C, and Fe3O4-Fe(C)-C.

Set Diagrams and Qualitative Research

Political scientists have developed important new ideas for using spatial diagrams to enhance quantitative research. Yet the potential uses of diagrams for qualitative research have not been explored systematically. We begin to correct this omission by showing how set diagrams can facilitate the application of qualitative methods and improve the presentation of qualitative findings. Set diagrams can be used in conjunction with a wide range of qualitative methodologies, including process tracing, concept formation, counterfactual analysis, sequence elaboration, and qualitative comparative analysis. We illustrate the utility of set diagrams by drawing on substantive examples of qualitative research in the fields of international relations and comparative politics.

Spatial distribution of structure infesting ant species inhabiting urban housing developments of different ages

The distribution of ant colonies within a community is often well defined, yet this distribution can change due to changing environmental conditions, resource availability, and colony growth. In this study, structure infesting ant communities were sampled for one year within three Puerto Rican housing developments of different ages. These developments represented environments in different stages of recovery after a disturbance (secondary succession). Spatial mapping was used to plot the distribution and abundance of ant communities within these developments. At the beginning of the study, the youngest housing development (1 year since construction), had the fewest number of species present (ave. 1.6 per house). The second housing development (4 years old) had a greater number of species (ave. 2.6 per house), and a greater sampling frequency (the same species collected at multiple houses) than Site 1. The oldest development (8 years old) had both the greatest number of species (ave. 2.7 per house), and sampling frequency of the three sites. In all developments, the number of species, sampling frequency, and ant biomass increased throughout the year as colonies grew and foraging ranges expanded. It was observed in all developments, that species coexistence also increased throughout the year. As colony populations increased, there was a greater occurrence of multiple species being collected at the same sample house. In the youngest development, the two most dominant species increased in numbers during the year and began to be collected from the same sample houses. Spatial diagrams documented that multiple species in the older housing developments (later stages of succession), also shared a common distribution. Even the most dominant species (S. invicta) in all three sites, did not exclude additional species from foraging within its established range.

The Art of Political Science: Spatial Diagrams as Iconic and Revelatory

Spatial diagrams of politics could and should be iconic for political science in much the same way as supply-and-demand curves are in economics. Many fundamental problems of political science can be connected with them, and many different concepts—such as ideological constraint, cross-pressures, framing, agenda-setting, political competition, voting systems, and party systems, to name just a few—can be illuminated through spatial diagrams. Spatial diagrams raise questions and provide insights. They suggest political maneuvers, possible realignments, and political problems. They provide us with revealing images that aid memory and facilitate analysis. They are a powerful way to think about politics, and we could not do better than to feature them in our textbooks, to use them in our research, and to exhibit them as our brand—as our distinctive way of thinking about how the world works

Thermal analysis of the LiF-SrFCl-SrCO3 three-component system

Thermal analysis of the LiF-SrFCl-SrCO3 system and its subsystems was carried out for the first time. In binary subsystems, incongruently melting compounds of compositions SrFCl · SrCO3, 4SrFCl · SrCO3, and LiF · SrCO3 are formed; their crystallization volumes are closed by peritectic points. The thermoanalytical data were used to design planar and spatial phase diagrams, which illustrate the phase complex of the title system. The thermal properties of a eutectic melt were studied.

Comparing Rural and Urban Children's Perceptions of an Ideal Community

While there is research on children's participation, what is needed are investigations on how children perceive community design and whether the geographic location in which the children live has an effect on their perceptions of an ideal community. The objectives of this study are to (1) identify children's ideal community elements and (2) determine if there are any differences in rural and urban children's perceptions. Models of an ideal community are created by ninety-three rural children and fifty urban children in a design charrette. Model content is analyzed using multivariate statistics to identify element and pattern preferences. Principal component analysis of the resultant thirty-eight models reveals that for the rural children, six components are considered significant dimensions and explain 67 percent of the variance, with the first component accounting for nearly 27 percent of the variance. For the urban children, four components are significant and explain 51 percent of the variance, with the first component accounting for nearly 15 percent of the variance. Spatial diagrams indicate that there is a difference between the rural and urban models. Furthermore, discriminant analysis reveals that there is a statistical difference between the content of the urban and rural models at a significance level of .007.

Understanding Spatial Diagram Structure: An Analysis of Hierarchies, Matrices, and Networks

Abstract diagrams are powerful tools for comprehension and problem solving in diverse contexts. Two studies examined the structural properties of (i.e., applicability conditions for) three interrelated spatial diagrams--hierarchies, matrices, and networks. College students from two groups with distinct educational backgrounds and learning histories--advanced computer science students and representative undergraduates--rated the diagnosticity of the hypothesized applicability conditions for each of the 3 diagrams. The results validated 24-26 of the 30 hypothesized applicability conditions and provided evidence regarding the relative importance, or diagnosticity, of the validated properties for each type of diagram. A different set of properties was identified as most highly diagnostic for each type of diagram, indicating that the three spatial diagrams are optimized to serve different representational functions: The matrix stores static information about the kind of relation that exists between pairs of items in different sets, the network conveys dynamic information by showing the local connections and global routes connecting the items being represented, and the hierarchy depicts a rigid structure of power or precedence relations among items. The quantitative and qualitative differences in representational knowledge due to educational background are discussed.

Context and structure: The nature of students' knowledge about three spatial diagram representations

The authors investigated whether college students possess abstract rules concerning the applicability conditions for three spatial diagrams that are important tools for thinking—matrices, networks, and hierarchies. A total of 127 students were asked to select which type of diagram would be best for organising the information in each of several short scenarios. The scenarios were written using three different story contexts: (a) neutral, presenting a real-life situation but not cueing a particular representation; (b) abstract, presenting only variable names and relations; and (c) incongruent, in which the context and informational structure cued different representations. The results indicated above-chance performance on the abstract scenarios, as well as comparable performance on the abstract and neutral context scenarios. In a follow-up study in which eight students thought out loud while selecting diagrams for the abstract scenarios, there were almost no references to concrete examples. The results of these studies suggest that students possess abstract rules concerning the applicability conditions for matrices, networks, and hierarchies.

Fields and networks: correspondence analysis and social network analysis in the framework of field theory

Pierre Bourdieu advocated relational thinking and a relational methodology. Nevertheless, he rejected social network analysis as a suitable technique for analyzing fields and he prescribed correspondence analysis. There are no fundamental technical differences between the two methods: social network analysis can produce spatial diagrams that are very similar to correspondence maps. Bourdieu's problem with network analysis concerns the kind of relations that should be analyzed: objective relations instead of the interpersonal relations usually studied in social network analysis. This paper discusses the differences between the two types of relations and it argues that interpersonal relations mediate and transform the effect of objective relations. Network analysis is needed for investigating this process, which may help to further integrate Bourdieu's field theory and theory of practice.

Consumer knowledge structures: Background issues and introduction

AbstractConsumer researchers have long assumed that consumers' knowledge about product concepts is organized in an associative network structure. Recent advances in conceptual cognition have raised issues beyond the classical versus prototype or exemplar controversy by identifying theory‐based concepts. This article reviews the current issues in conceptual cognition of frame theory, conceptual functions other than categorization, domain‐specific kinds of concepts, feature centrality, and perceptual representation of concepts. In addition, the role of spatial diagrams is implicated in the problem of describing consumer knowledge structures. The articles in this special issue are introduced in this context. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

To Matrix, Network, or Hierarchy: That Is the Question

The authors present a structural analysis of three spatial diagrams—matrices, networks, and hierarchies—that specifies 10 properties on which these diagrammatic representations are hypothesized to differ: global structure, building block, number of sets, item/link constraints, item distinguishability, link type, absence of a relation, linking relations, path, and traversal. Each property has a “value” for each diagram, and these property values constitute the applicability conditions for the representations. Twenty-three college students (computer science majors and math educators) selected the type of diagram they thought would be most efficient for organizing the information in each of 18 short scenarios and verbally justified the reasons for their selections. The verbal protocols were coded with respect to the structural analysis. Both the representation selection and verbal justification data provided strong support for the structural analysis. Additionally, a factor analysis of students' justifications indicated that the organization of their knowledge is consistent with the structural analysis. Students' use of the structural properties to select appropriate representations and to justify those selections indicates that the structural analysis has psychological force.

RATE OF DRYING AND STRESSES IN THE FIRST PERIOD OF DRYING*

ABSTRACT The paper presents a computer simulated processes and illustrate how the drying induced stresses are influenced by the rate of drying. It is shown that the moisture transport coefficient, and thus the rate of drying, depends on the thermal state of the drying material, defined by the wet-bulb temperature. Through these simulated processes one can observe the evolution of the moisture content and stress distributions during drying at constant, but in each process different, wet-bulb temperatures. A convective drying process of a bar with rectangular cross-section is considered as example, and a two-dimensional initial-boundary value problem is solved numerically with the use of the finite element method. The numerical results are visualised in spatial diagrams.

FORCES IN REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGE DECK SLABS/TILTŲ PERDANGŲ GELŽBETONINĖS PLOKŠTĖS ĮRĄŽOS

A distinct difference between forces, especially bending moments, in slabs of slab-and-beam deck of reinforced concrete bridges, determined by the methods of analysis, applied in the former USSR and France, is pointed out in the article. The essence of calculation of forces in the slab due to bridge loads is presented. Deformations of deck as a spatial structure are resolved into local between beams and spatial characteristics for the whole deck. Local bending slab moments due to local deformations are calculated approximately using diagrams of a continuous and with built-in-end beam. It is shown that forces only due to local deformations are evaluated in the method of the former USSR. A more accurate modelling of deck slab behaviour is obtained by using spatial diagrams composed of plate and beam elements or of spatial diagrams composed of plate and beam elements or of even more accurate shell-type elements. Calculations have been performed by the use of three finite-element method programs Lira, Gifts and Staad3. Decks of various length and width are loaded with combinations of permanent and variable, traffic AK and HK-80 loads. More accurately strain and stress states are modelled in non-linear calculations accounting for non- elastic deformation and cracking of slab concrete as well as cracking of beams. The investigation of results has shown that the method of the former USSR, still applied in Lithuania today, erroneously evaluates slab load-effect resulting in unacceptedly reduced positive bending moments in the larger central deck part. Recommendations to calculate these load-effects are proposed. By simplified two-stage- design methods in use to-day when at the first stage basic load effects Mo and Qoare calculated employing diagrams of simple beam (USSR), or that of slab supported on two sides (France), and in the second stage design loads-effects are determined by multiplication of basic values and coefficients. Recommended values of such coefficients for basic bending moments Mo determined by beam method are shown in Fig. 7a, and those by slab method—in Fig. 7b. Other recommendations for evaluation of shear forces and longitudinal moments are also presented.

TILTŲ PERDANGŲ GELŽBETONINĖS PLOKŠTĖS ĮRĄŽOS

Summary A distinct difference between forces, especially bending moments, in slabs of slab-and-beam deck of reinforced concrete bridges, determined by the methods of analysis, applied in the former USSR and France, is pointed out in the article. The essence of calculation of forces in the slab due to bridge loads is presented. Deformations of deck as a spatial structure are resolved into local between beams and spatial characteristics for the whole deck. Local bending slab moments due to local deformations are calculated approximately using diagrams of a continuous and with built-in-end beam. It is shown that forces only due to local deformations are evaluated in the method of the former USSR. A more accurate modelling of deck slab behaviour is obtained by using spatial diagrams composed of plate and beam elements or of spatial diagrams composed of plate and beam elements or of even more accurate shell-type elements. Calculations have been performed by the use of three finite-element method programs Lira,...

A COGNITIVE ANALYSIS OF SOLUTIONS FOR VERBAL, INFORMAL, AND FORMAL‐DEDUCTIVE REASONING PROBLEMS

ABSTRACTA previous study of new item types for the analytical measure of the GRE General Test found that the items loaded on three of four separable factors that were labeled verbal reasoning, informal reasoning, formal‐deductive reasoning, and quantitative reasoning. The present study examined the issue of how processing differed for these item types in the context of a problem‐space framework. Protocols of examinees solving a small set of problems aloud were collected. These protocols were examined with respect to two phases of the problem‐solving process: problem representation and problem solution. For formal‐deductive items, all the information necessary to solve the problem was provided in the problem statement. The representation of formal‐deductive items involved the use of meaning‐reduced tokens and spatial diagrams. The units involved in the representation of informal reasoning and verbal reasoning item types included meaningful propositions and meaning‐emphasizing paraphrases. Reference to common background knowledge occurred. The analysis of the problem‐solution phase focused on the processes of evaluation, (judgments of the correctness of an option) and justification (statements of an argument or of evidence for why an option was or was not correct). First, the order of these processes was found to differ for formal‐deductive items and other item types. Secondly, item solutions varied in terms of the kinds of justifications that were offered by the examinees for accepting or rejecting options. These results illustrate how the addition of some item types to the GRE analytical measure will expand the variety of reasoning skills assessed. Implications of these results for cognitive models of reasoning are also discussed.

Carrier-induced localization in In-Ga-As/In-Ga-As-P separate-confinement quantum-well structures

We present a detailed analysis of carrier-induced modifications on the spatial band diagrams of In-Ga-As/In-Ga-As-P separate-confinement multiple-quantum-well structures and its consequences on optical properties. In the high-carrier-density regime, we observe experimentally a second peak in the spectra of the optical gain. This can be understood by a buildup of a space charge and band bending which is caused by a spatial separation between electrons and holes due to the different density of states of the conduction and valence bands. This band bending causes a localization of barrier conduction band states in the quantum-well region and an enhancement of the overlap integral of those states with quantized heavy hole states giving rise to substantial modifications in the optical matrix elements. These modified matrix elements are the origin of the new class of optical transitions observed in the optical gain spectra.

Europe, America, and the Wider World: Essays on the Economic History of Western Capitalism, vol. 2: America and the Wider World by William N. Parker

TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 805 Europe, America, and the Wider World: Essays on the Economic EUstory of Western Capitalism, vol. 2: America and the Wider World. By William N. Parker. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Pp. xvii + 372; tables, notes, appendixes, index. $59.50 (cloth); $17.95 (paper). William N. Parker is the Phillip Golden Bartlett Professor Emeritus of Economics and Economic History at Yale University. This is the second and final volume of his collected essays; the first bore the subtitle Europe and the World Economy. Parker is unusual among eco­ nomic historians in that he has done research in primary sources in both Europe and the United States. His early work, accomplished mainly in the 1950s, dealt with the mining and metallurgical industries of Western Europe (see, e.g., Coal and Steel in Western Europe [1957], coauthored with N. J. G. Pounds) and is well represented in the first volume of these essays. Parker is even more famous, however, for his research in American history, especially agricultural history, and most of the essays in this volume come from that phase of his career. As a student of A. P. Usher, whose publications are well known to readers of this journal, Parker emphasizes the interrelations of technology, resources, and institutions. Parker is also a literary econ­ omist, in the best sense of that term. Not that he shuns quantitative data—quite the contrary—but he writes clearly and well, and at times humorously, sprinkling his text with literary allusions and occasional quotations. He also employs diagrams—not the usual supply-anddemand or production-function graphs of economists (well, some­ times those, too), but spatial diagrams intended to indicate the relation of everything to everything else, including body, brain, mind, memory, values, and attitudes (see, e.g., p. 349). He indicates that he began every graduate course with such a diagram. I do not know how his students reacted to them, but I must confess that I have yet to understand a single one of them. The book is organized in five parts, plus two “annexes” (appen­ dixes?). Part 1 consists of a single chapter, “American Civilization: The Impulse from Europe.” It was presented as a paper to a Japanese seminar on American studies and was presumably intended to explain to the Japanese auditors/readers the influence of Europe on Ameri­ can institutions and behavior. Part 2, “The South in Slavery and Freedom,” contains five chapters devoted primarily to southern agriculture. The heart of the book lies in parts 3 and 4, entitled respectively “Capitalist Dynamics of the Rural North” (four chapters) and “The North: Dynamics of an Industrial Culture” (nominally two chapters, but actually seven). These two parts also contain the only chapters concerned explicitly with technology, although the subject is, of course, dealt with elsewhere in its relations with other factors. Chapter 9, “Technological Knowledge: Reproduction, Diffusion, Im­ 806 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE provement,” is strongly reminiscent of Usher’s treatment of the same subject. Chapter 12, “The Industrial Civilization of the Midwest,” is in six parts, the first of which is devoted to resources and technology. Part 5, “American Values in a Capitalist World,” has three chapters and for the first time casts a glance at the “wider world” promised in the subtitle. Actually, however, they are also mainly concerned with the United States. Chapter 13, “Political Controls on a National Economy,” was originally entitled “American Attitudes toward Busi­ ness.” Parker suggests in his preface that the two final chapters, “Nationhood in a Common Market” and “European Industrialization in an American Mirror,” somehow pertain to recent events in Europe, but of course they were written before the dramatic events of 1989 and later. The former does not even mention the European Commu­ nity, and the latter, prepared for a conference assessing the impact of the work of Alexander Gerschenkron, is an obvious reference to his Europe in a Russian Mirror (1970). The two “annexes”—“A Look Backward. Quantification and the Counterfactual in American Agricultural History, 1850—1910: A Re-examination” and “A Look Forward. Understanding Productivity: The Ways of Economics and History”—are able examples of the economic historian’s craft, but have little...

Preparation of Cotton Fabrics at Low Temperatures Using Persulfate Activated Hydrogen Peroxide

A low temperature preparatory process has been devised for cotton fabrics using persulfate activated hydrogen peroxide. Detailed laboratory experiments investigate the preparation process, which consists of treatment with hypochlorite of enzymatically desized fabric followed by combined scouring and bleaching by alkaline hydrogen peroxide activated with potassium persulfate. The peroxide treatment follows a pad- store-wash method, using a statistical plan for three variables: the concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide and the temperature of batching. A regression analysis of the data on whiteness and fluidity responses results in spatial diagrams for optimizing the concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide at 35 and 45 °C.