Spanish Travelers Research Articles

The Socioeconomic Image of China in the Early Modern Age and the Debate on the Decline of Castile

This article analyzes the socioeconomic image of China developed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by Spanish travelers and historians, differentiating between the idealized “Iberian view” and the more nuanced and critical Jesuit perspective. What were thought to be the main reasons behind China's wealth that impressed Europeans so much is relevant for a better understanding of the seventeenth-century debate on the causes of the decline of Castile, the heart of the Spanish Empire. On the one hand, the contrast between the increasingly battered Hispanic monarchy and the image of prosperity—more or less nuanced—conveyed by both visions of China made clearer the situation of socioeconomic decline of the Spanish Empire. In fact, from both visions could be implicitly derived diverse criticisms of the Spain of the last Habsburgs. On the other hand, it is paradoxical and surprising that the protagonists of the debate on the Castilian decline, the arbitristas, were not aware of the writings on China of their contemporaries, which reduced the potential of their analysis.

Managing sustainability-oriented innovation in services: proposal of a scale for the future of hotel companies and travel agencies

PurposeThe concept of Sustainability-Oriented Service Innovation (SOSI) has been recently suggested from a conceptual reflection approach in an attempt to integrate innovation and sustainability in services, being an emerging field of innovation in services. This study aims to propose a scale to measure Sustainability-Oriented Service Innovation from the perspective of the company. Because the whole is different from the sum of its different parts, we need to better understand the synergy between sustainability and innovation for the future of tourism companies.Design/methodology/approachUpon a literature review, we propose a scale and explore its dimensionality with data from 268 to 256 Spanish hotel and travel agency managers, respectively. The dimensionality of the scale for measuring Sustainability-Oriented Service Innovation is similar in hotels and travel agencies.FindingsFive factors emerge from the principal component analyses carried out: two dimensions referred to technological and non-technological innovation, respectively, and three dimensions labelled as economic, social and environmental sustainability.Practical implicationsTo guide managers towards their operations, the proposed scale is expected to inspire models to assess the impact of SOSI practices in such a highly competitive industry and to identify the most influencing dimensions on the future performance of the tourism company.Originality/valueTo the best of our knowledge, no scale has been presented so far that brings together the dimensions of technological and non-technological innovation, as well as sustainability from a Triple Bottom Line approach.

Gender and Age in the Travel Choice by Spanish Travel Agency Consumers

The tourist intermediary industry has faced multiple challenges to adapt their offers to the heterogeneity of tourists, and understanding consumer interests from a gender and age perspective is considered crucial in the design and marketing of tourist products. The aim of this article is to examine the differences generated by the gender and age variables of consumers of Spanish travel agencies when choosing travel and tourist destinations, focusing on different types of travel, the choice between national and international destinations, and specific destination types. An explanatory quantitative methodology was employed with a hypothetical-deductive approach. A questionnaire was administered to individuals who booked through Spanish travel agencies and a sample of 879 was obtained. The data were analyzed using SPSS 26 software and the main statistical tool was the Pearson Chi-Square (χ2) test. The findings show that gender implies significant differences in travel preferences, with women favoring the exploration of new destinations and men preferring relaxation travel. Age groups impact the choice between national and international travel, but have a lesser effect on specific destination preferences. This research underscores the importance of considering gender and age in understanding consumer behavior within the travel sector, with the aim of developing more effective marketing strategies and catering to diverse customer needs. Within the implications, the growing importance of the older traveler segment should be highlighted, which requires future research and comparisons with the younger traveler segment.

The promotion of Spanish travel agencies from the 20th century to the present

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the unexplored part of the historical evolution of travel agencies in Spain, from the end of the 20th century to the 21st century. When examining promotion strategies, the study focuses on the change in marketing and public relations strategies based on the incorporation of information and communication technologies and, in particular, the use of the internet.Design/methodology/approachThis study draws on a qualitative analysis of the different strategies used by traditional agencies and online agencies in Spain from the mid-19th century to the present. This analysis shows how traditional communication strategies survived at the beginning of the 21st century, together with other more innovative ones, while some disappeared, being eliminated by the new online travel agencies, which created a particular conception of marketing and communication. This paper is divided into the following parts: the introduction; the beginnings of travel agency promotion in the 20th century; the evolution of promotion in travel agencies since the late 20th century; communication innovation at the beginning of the 21st century; online travel agencies; and conclusions.FindingsThis study shows that although online agencies did not manage to position themselves with a large turnover, they generated advantages and sharpened their imagination to create a new, more economical advertising model, eliminating the costs of public relations and advertising campaigns. In addition, they allowed clients to have greater independence when making their reservations, while enabling them to monitor the tastes of potential and real clients and add blogs so that consumers could express their degree of satisfaction with the product or services provided by the agency.Originality/valueThe focus of attention is the travel agency sector in Spain and, more specifically, communication. Studies on travel agencies and their marketing have been very scarce and partial, impeding professionals in the tourism sector from having a broad vision to direct their promotional and public relations actions. The originality of this article lies in its making a comparison between two different visions of tourism marketing and, specifically, of travel agencies, that is, the traditional vision and the innovative one. It thus helps all professionals in the sector to value and improve their marketing and communication strategies.

COVID-19's effect on Spanish retail travel agency management. The case of A Coruña

COVID-19's effect on Spanish retail travel agency management. The case of A Coruña

The Lady Advances: The Voices of Women in Early Christianity

Abstract: This article examines the purpose and features of womens' writing in early Christianity. Among early Christian texts, only three can be attributed reliably to women authors, and all three are primarily efforts at biblical interpretation. In her section of The Passion of Perpetua and Felicity , Perpetua becomes an inspired prophet and interpreter. The Spanish traveler Egeria investigates the sites of biblical episodes and two later stories of apostolic travels in order to teach the women with whom she corresponds; and Proba composes a cento to cast and reinterpret the life of Christ in fourth-century Rome. Finally, a contemporaneous description of Melania the Elder as a teacher and exegete confirms that women in some parts of early Christianity had the ability to teach and interpret scripture; their work should be discussed along with that of contemporary male authors in early Christianity.

The Image of the Native Ruler in the Writings of the Participants of the Circumnavigations of the 16th century

The article deals with the analysis of the formation of the image of the native ruler in the compositions of the participants of the first circumnavigations of the 16th century.
 The participants of the expeditions often became the first Europeans to reach remote corners of the world and get acquainted with previously unknown nations. Basic judgments about those peoples were often based on descriptions of their rulers. The study attempts to identify common characteristic features in the descriptions of native leaders left by Spanish and English travelers in the 16th century. The comparison of the evidence allows us to trace the evolution of the image of the native leader, and in some cases, to identify the falsifications that resulted from the individual tendentious writings of the era. It was possible to identify the similarity of the images of Eastern rulers. The authors of the works note their wealth, a special ceremonial surrounding, and almost absolute power over their subjects. At the same time, a characteristic feature of the Eastern ruler is his cunning, which is always implied when constructing the image. But despite the negative features, both Spanish and English discoverers always sought to conclude an alliance with the ruler, appeasing him with gifts and promises of military assistance to gain a foothold in the open lands relying on his power.

Documenting the early history of the grotto in the National Palace of Sintra (Portugal)

The National Palace of Sintra, the summer residence of the kings and queens of Portugal, underwent important transformations during the reign of Manuel I of Portugal (1495–1521). These changes significantly affected the water infrastructure of the building. Among numerous tanks and fountains, a very early 16th-century grotto was constructed. Its existence has gone unnoticed as it was completely refurbished during the 18th century. Nevertheless, it was described by a contemporary Spanish traveller. In this essay, we would like to present the original documentary and morphological details of the so-called Gruta dos Banhos and vindicate its role in the history of grottoes.

Linking unlearning with the intention to recommend through destination image

ObjetivoLa naturaleza intangible del turismo hace que variables como la imagen del destino o la intención de recomendarlo sean decisivas para los turistas, al considerarlas fuentes de información fiables. Dado su carácter dinámico, estas variables se han visto afectadas por la pandemia del Covid-19 y necesitan ser actualizadas. En base a lo anterior, el objetivo de este estudio es analizar cómo el proceso de desaprendizaje ayuda a los turistas a ser conscientes de la nueva situación, a abandonar los viejos hábitos y a reaprender, influyendo así en la imagen del destino y en la intención de recomendarlos. Asimismo, se analiza la relación entre la imagen del destino y la intención de recomendarlo.MetodologíaPara analizar el modelo propuesto se llevó a cabo un estudio empírico basado en una encuesta online, obteniendo una muestra válida de 457 viajeros nacionales españoles. Los datos se han analizado mediante PLS-SEM.ResultadosLos resultados del estudio muestran un efecto positivo entre los resultados del desaprendizaje y la intención de recomendar destinos, así como un efecto mediador de la imagen de destino en esta relación.OriginalidadEste estudio analiza por primera vez el desaprendizaje en el sector turístico como un proceso individual llevado a cabo por turistas y muestra cómo influye en el proceso de toma de decisiones de estos.

Consumer behaviour in air transportation: Comparison between Spanish and German passengers

Airlines normally operate at an international level and therefore face very diverse demands for air travel. Many studies confirm that passengers with different nationalities can show very distinctive consumer behaviour. To maximize profits, these differences have to be considered by airlines within their international marketing strategies.This study analyses and compares customer behaviour, in air transportation, of two nationalities: Spaniards and Germans. The purpose of the research is to detect possible differences between both nationalities which could be of relevance for the marketing strategies of airlines in these countries. A theoretical model was developed, which includes several important marketing constructs (perceived service quality, perceived value, customer satisfaction and customer loyalty). Based on a survey answered by Spanish and German passengers regarding their last flight experience, the constructed model was tested separately for each nationality as well as compared against each other by way of a multi-group analysis. The study reveals several differences between Spanish and German travellers, which help us to better understand customer behaviour in both passenger groups and which could be useful for better adapting to local customer needs.

El rol de la agencia de viajes ante la nueva situación post covid-19: decálogo de propuestas para su recuperación.

The Covid -19 pandemic is having a devastating impact on the travel industry. The consequences of the virus are beginning to be seen in the form of mergers, closures or acquisitions that will leave behind a new landscape in the travel agency sub -sector. This study analyses the situation of Spanish travel agencies and, on the basis of this research, proposes a manual of good practices for their recovery. A total of 726 travel agents were contacted through an online survey. The study shows that the current situation is perceived as a turning point from which a change must take place in the market, ranging from technological innovation to the marketing of more sustainable products, including a possible change of business model. After participatory observation in the sector and analysis of the results obtained, a manual of good practices is proposed in the form of a decalogue which, when put into practice, will help to guarantee the future of travel agencies, already affected by the changes brought about by the appearance of new players in the area of tourism intermediation

Erasmus students as consumers of tourism services in Poland

Tourism is one of the main factors that encourage students to participate in the Erasmus programme, and many Erasmus students are eager to travel while studying abroad. The article highlights an important segment of the Polish tourism market, namely foreign students enrolled in the Erasmus programme. The article aims to identify opportunities for the tourism industry associated with Erasmus students in Poland, taking into account experiences of other countries. The study is based on empirical data obtained from the Polish Tourism Organization and from Erasmus Family in Cordoba, a Spanish travel agency for the period 2015-2018. In addition, the author conducted a literature review, analysed relevant documents, and relied on her own observations. The growing socio-economic benefits of the Erasmus programme for countries participating in the programme stimulate competition between them in an attempt to attract more international students, where success of particular host countries and their educational institutions depends on a number of factors, including those associated with tourism. Significant competitive advantages can be achieved in this respect by combining the efforts of educational institutions and those responsible for tourism policy.

Has COVID-19 had an impact on prices? The case of the cruise industry

One of the previously unknown and unexpected impact of COVID-19 is its effect on prices. The aim of this research is to estimate how prices in the cruise industry have changed since COVID-19 was declared a pandemic. To carry out this research the authors created an extensive database of prices from February 2019 to March 2021, which were collected from a leading Spanish online travel agency (OTA). Methodologically, this research uses descriptive and hedonic analyses. The main conclusion is that cruise prices have reduced, on average, by 4.3%, although there are relevant differences between cruise companies, zone of departure, size, antiquity and rating of the ships, and the number of days between the date of capture and the date of cruise departure. Finally, several managerial implications are suggested from the results of this study.

RARE BACTERIAL EMPYEMA AFTER A BLUNT TRAUMA

TOPIC: Disorders of the Pleura TYPE: Medical Student/Resident Case Reports INTRODUCTION: Pleural effusion (PE) is an accumulation of excess fluid in the pleural space. PE is classified as transudative or exudative. Transudative pleural effusion can result from: increased hydrostatic pressure, decreased oncotic forces or increased negative intrapleural pressure. On the other hand, exudative pleural effusion result from increased capillary permeability and impaired lymphatic drainage caused by inflammatory processes. Parapneumonic effusions such as empyema are related to pneumonia in 20-40%. ß hemolytic Lancefield group A streptococcus pyogenes (GAS) is a common cause of upper respiratory tract and cutaneous infections which commonly is related to streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. GAS is an uncommon pathogen with 1.14 per 100,000 habitants associated to bacterial pneumonia, however the prevalence of GAS associated to empyema is only 0.7%. CASE PRESENTATION: Case of 46-year-old man with history of IVDA who arrived to urgency room due to shortness of breath, dry cough and left pleuritic chest pain of 3 weeks of evolution. He had a chest trauma as a pedestrian 2 weeks prior arrival. He denied fever, night sweats, hemoptysis, palpitations, or weight changes. Vitals signs were remarkable for tachycardia, tachypnea and decreased peripheral oxygen saturation. Physical examination was remarkable for bilateral decreased breath sounds and left side dullness to percussion. ABG's with oxygen supplementation revealed hypercapnia 57.3 mmHg with elevated A-a gradient 66.3 mmHg. CBC showed leukocytosis with left shifting. Chemistry panel was remarkable for metabolic alkalosis 31 mmol/L and lactate dehydrogenase was elevated 615 IU/L. Chest X-Ray showed left sided white lung, followed by a chest CT with bilateral pleuro-parenchyma fibrotic changes, bullae formation, centrilobular emphysema, patchy ground glass appearance at both lung fields and decreased right lung volume with ipsilateral displacement of the heart and mediastinal structures with large, multiloculated left pleural effusion with increased density. Left side thoracentesis performed collecting 120ml of purulent fluid, elevated WBC 150,000 with PMN 65% and gram stain positive. Chest tube was placed and drain 1400ml of brown-yellow purulent fluid and pleural culture showed growth of streptococcus pyogenes group A. Patient started on directed IV antibiotic therapy. DISCUSSION: Empyema is an accumulation of excess pus in pleural space. The M protein, the major virulence factor, is a macromolecule incorporated in fimbriae present on the cell membrane projecting on the bacterial cell wall. It is the primary cause of antigenic shift and antigenic drift among GAS. CONCLUSIONS: We expect to contribute awareness and knowledge to the medical field to always include empyema in the working diagnosis of all patients with progressive dyspnea after blunt trauma. REFERENCE #1: Sakai T, Taniyama D, Takahashi S, Nakamura M, Takahashi T. Pleural empyema and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome due to Streptococcus pyogenes in a healthy Spanish traveler in Japan. IDCases. 2017;9:85-88. Published 2017 Jun 27. doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2017.06.006 REFERENCE #2: Shebl E, Paul M. Parapneumonic Pleural Effusions And Empyema Thoracis. [Updated 2020 Aug 10]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534297/ REFERENCE #3: Tamayo E, Montes M, Vicente D, Pérez-Trallero E. Streptococcus pyogenes Pneumonia in Adults: Clinical Presentation and Molecular Characterization of Isolates 2006-2015. PLoS One. 2016;11(3):e0152640. Published 2016 Mar 30. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152640 DISCLOSURES: No relevant relationships by Maria Betancourt, source=Web Response No relevant relationships by Marlene Farinacci Vilaro, source=Web Response No relevant relationships by Kyomara Hernandez-Moya, source=Web Response No relevant relationships by Arnaldo Nieves-Ortiz, source=Web Response No relevant relationships by Ivanisse Ortiz Velez, source=Web Response No relevant relationships by Neshma Roman-Velez, source=Web Response

Contents and quality of travel tips on malaria in English and Spanish travel blogs

BackgroundEurope has about 10,000 imported cases of malaria each year, or around 80 cases per 100,000 trips to endemic areas. Non-use of chemoprophylaxis in travellers remains the main reason for this. The proliferation of online travel blogs as a source of advice (sometimes the only one used) for preparing a trip to an endemic area may play a role in the decision to use chemoprophylaxis. The aim of this study was to analyse the information offered on malaria in the main travel blogs in English and Spanish.MethodsFive hundred travel blogs in English and 100 in Spanish, considered highly relevant were analysed. The relevance were according to different metrics: (1) Alexa Rank; (2) social networks (RRSS) measuring the total followers of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube; (3) number of monthly visits using the SEMrush tool; (4) domain authority; and (5) number of backlinks or incoming links using the SEMrush tool.ResultsOf the included travel blogs, 57% of those in English and 64% of those in Spanish offered information on malaria, and 79 and 75%, respectively, featured a discussion on malaria written as a blog post or in forum comments. Information on chemoprophylaxis was available in 56.1% of English-language blogs and 10.7% of Spanish-speaking blogs, while its side effects were discussed in 38.6 and 68.8%, respectively (p < 0.001). Content analysis revealed that the information was usually insufficient, incomplete or, more seriously, inaccurate. In many cases, this could discourage users from taking appropriate preventive measures.ConclusionsTravel blogs in English and Spanish provide low-quality information on malaria. The so-called “travel influencers” must communicate reliable, verified and quality information on malaria on their channels in a way that could contribute to reducing the burden of the disease in travellers.

Dimensiones de la demanda turística española: caracterización de las comunidades autónomas según la motivación de los viajeros españoles (2016)

The objective of this study is to identify the dimensions that motivate Spanish tourist demand by autonomous community of destination, from the trips as made by Spanish travellers recorded by the Resident Tourism Survey (ETR) for the year 2016, as prepared by the National Statistics Institute. The nature of the data requires the use of appropriate statistical methodology: the factorial technique called Simple Correspon‑ dence Analysis. After this analysis, the dimensions of the demand related to leisure were identified as pursuit of sun and sand; nature and / or sports tourism, and cultural tourism together with professional reasons and personal dimensions of visits to family and friends. These dimensions allow us to characterise each Spanish autonomous community according to national tourism demand, and to analyse their relative competitive posi‑ tion in relation to the diversity and structure of their tourism offer. The results obtained are a starting point for other research in subsequent years, given that the year analysed is the first with complete RTE data

The Image of the Interpreter in the First Sino-Spanish Contacts (16th Century)

&lt;span&gt;The earliest Spanish travelers in China coming from the Philippines (16th century), not being able to communicate in Chinese, have to trust interpreters who, very often and for the most diverse reasons, do not always carry out their work with the expected fidelity. These interpreters, beyond being mere translators, also function as guides, as informants about the territory and, above all, as cultural mediators. The first documents on Sino-Spanish contacts, especially Rada’s, Loarca’s, Tordesillas’, and Sánchez’ travel accounts, written between 1575 and 1583, allow to catch a glimpse of the interpreters’ identity, their social and geographical origin, their linguistic and cultural skills, their various&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span&gt;tasks in mediation as well as the difficulties&lt;br /&gt;they have to deal with in their work. The documents also allow to perceive the need for the first missionaries to learn Chinese and their very first attempts to do so.&lt;/span&gt;

Un encuentro colonial: Viajeros españoles en Marruecos (1860-1912)

A partir de la guerra hispano-marroquí de 1860, la literatura de viajes sobre Marruecos conoce un gran desarrollo en España. En la primera parte de este artículo se ofrece una tipología de los autores de este tipo de obras, fundada en su actividad profesional (exploradores, militares, diplomáticos, periodistas y científicos). La segunda parte está dedicada al análisis del discurso empleado en estos libros de viajes, cuya representación de la realidad marroquí se sitúa en el marco de una ideología de carácter colonial.

Coleccionismo de antigüedades y recepción del clasicismo. Relaciones entre Italia y España en el siglo XVIII

En el marco de las relaciones entre España e Italia durante el siglo XVIII, este trabajo analiza la influencia que las colecciones de antigüedades —fundamentalmente esculturas—, formadas en Roma y Nápoles y traídas a España, tuvieron en la difusión de las ideas sobre el mundo clásico en la misma, así como su recepción por parte de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando y su utilización por los artistas al servicio de la dinastía borbónica. Asimismo se estudia brevemente la aportación de los viajeros españoles por Italia al conocimiento de las antigüedades hispanas, y se discute el mito de Pompeya y Herculano como fuente inspiradora del arte neoclásico.

Reconstructing ancient architecture at Tiwanaku, Bolivia: the potential and promise of 3D printing

The ruins of Tiwanaku (A.D. 500–950), in the modern republic of Bolivia, present an archaeological challenge owing to intense looting during the colonial period that effectively demolished the site. One building in particular, known as the Pumapunku, was described by Spanish conquistadors and travelers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as a wondrous, though unfinished, building with gateways and windows carved from single blocks. Unparalleled in the pre-Colombian New World, the craftsmanship of this masonry has long been considered the architectural apogee of Andean pre-Colombian lithic technology. Unfortunately, during the last 500 years, treasure hunters have ransacked this building to the point that none of approximately shattered remains of 150 blocks of the standing architecture are to be found in their original place. Over the last century and a half, several different scholars have carefully measured the shattered architecture and even managed to join several fragments to form complete pieces. This research revisited these historic field notes with a view to transforming this century and a half of documentation into solid 3D form. These measurements were entered by hand into an architectural modeling program; the virtual form was subsequently printed in 3D form at 4% reduced scale. Unlike large architectural pieces — or notes or models on a computer screen — 3D-printed pieces can be manipulated quickly and intuitively, allowing researchers to try combinations and seek connections rapidly, turning over pieces and testing possible fits. This tactile engagement, along with the ability to quickly try out combinations of the 3D-printed pieces, led to fresh and often unexpected insights. Once refined and simplified, this methodology, was demonstrated to the indigenous site managers who were provided with a full copy of the printed architectural fragments with a view to continuing research and to present the work to visitors, stakeholders and other scholars.