Spanish Red Wines Research Articles

Evolution of oak-related volatile compounds in a Spanish red wine during 2 years bottled, after aging in barrels made of Spanish, French and American oak wood

A red Rioja wine aged for 21 months in barrels made of Spanish oak wood ( Quercus spp.), was stored in bottles for 24 months at wine cellar. The evolution of some volatile compounds during their storage time in bottles was studied and compared with the evolution of the same wine, but aged in barrels made of French oak ( Q. robur, Q. petraea) and American oak ( Q. alba). Although the volatile composition of wine underwent an evolution during bottle aging, this was carried out in such a way that the most important characteristics spread into wine from wood, remained until the end of bottle aging, or at least, for the 24 months of our research. Therefore, wines with different characteristics were obtained from the same wine, after 21 months of aging in barrels and 24 months of aging in bottle, depending on the kind of wood used in oxidative aging.

E-tongue based on a hybrid array of voltammetric sensors based on phthalocyanines, perylene derivatives and conducting polymers: Discrimination capability towards red wines elaborated with different varieties of grapes

An innovative hybrid sensor array formed by voltammetric electrodes chemically modified with three families of electroactive substances (conducting polymers, phthalocyanine complexes and perylenes) has been developed. Electroactive materials have been deposited onto gold electrodes lithographied in an alumina card.Polymeric sensors have been obtained by electrodeposition of pyrrole in the presence of different doping agents. Phthalocyanine and perylene-based electrodes have been prepared using the carbon paste electrode technique.This e-tongue has demonstrated a good-quality ability in discriminating and recognising among 12 Spanish red wines on account of their denomination of origin, grape variety and vintage. The quality of the performance attained is due to the versatility, cross-selectivity and reproducibility of the sensors forming the array.

Relationship between vasodilation capacity and phenolic content of Spanish wines

We aimed to determine: 1) the concentration of polyphenols in Spanish red wines, 2) the vasodilatory properties of those wines in relation with their polyphenol concentrations and 3) the vasodilation induced by some of these polyphenols in rat aortic rings. In the wines studied the concentration of rutin and kaempferol was high compared with other polyphenols. All wines relaxed precontracted rat aortic rings and this effect was directly related with the concentration of myricetin and kaempferol in the wines. Kaempferol and rutin also induced endothelium-dependent and independent relaxation, kaempferol was more potent. This relaxation was not inhibited by the estrogen receptor α antagonist ICI 182,760. Kaempferol also potentiated the endothelium-dependent relaxation induced by acetylcholine, which was reversed by Nw-nitro- l-arginine methyl ester ( l-NAME). These findings show a good correlation between the concentration of polyphenols (especially kaempferol) of Spanish red wines and the vasodilatory effect, which may confer on them unique features in the prevention of cardiovascular disease.

Electrochemical sensor array made from bisphthalocyanine modified carbon paste electrodes for discrimination of red wines

A new sensor system devoted to the discrimination of red wines is presented. It consists of an array of electrochemical sensors made from carbon paste electrodes modified with three rare-earth bisphthalocyaninate compounds, including lutetium(III), gadolinium(III) and praseodymium(III) bisphthalocyaninates. The sensor responses have been evaluated either by cyclic voltammetry or by square wave voltammetry, and demonstrate that such voltammetric sensors show a rich response when immersed in red wines. In addition, this response can be tuned by changing the central metal atom of the double-decker complexes, obtaining sensing units with high cross-selectivity. The sensor array is exposed to six Spanish red wines made from the same grape variety, prepared using a similar vinification method, but belonging to three different geographic origins and ageing stages. The voltammograms indicate that each sensing unit provides a particular response to each class of wine. Finally, the signals coming from each sensor are combined and the system’s discrimination capability is evaluated by using principal component analysis (PCA), where a windowed slicing pre-processing method has been developed to capture the information throughout the global response. The PCA score plots of the obtained data show the discrimination of the tested wines with a good-quality performance.

Determination of piceid and resveratrol in Spanish wines deriving from Monastrell (Vitis vinifera L.) grape variety.

The presence of stilbenes in wine is becoming an important issue due to their claimed relation to a low incidence in coronary diseases and their increasing implication as cancer chemopreventive and neuroprotective agents. Total resveratrol content, quantified as glucoside and aglycone forms of resveratrol, has been determined in a survey of 45 Monastrell monovarietal Spanish red wine types (around 135 wine samples), belonging to Alicante and Bullas appellations. The average between ratio glucoside/aglycone forms of resveratrol in these wines was considerably high, ranging from 82 to 91% of resveratrol in its glycosidic form. This characteristic was observed in a high percentage of the studied wines, which were made under different winemaking procedures, and from different vintages (1995-2002). In addition, wines made using macerative fermentations with double amount of solid parts ("doble pasta") reached the highest levels of total stilbene content expressed as resveratrol equivalent, i.e., 30 mg/L (average of 18.8 mg/L). It can be concluded that high resveratrol glucoside concentration and low free isomer content can be considered characteristics of the Monastrell variety, as it happens to red wines deriving from other varieties grown at warm climates. This fact, also observed for other French and Portuguese red varieties, might play an important role in food habits involving these types of wines.

Ethyl carbamate concentrations of typical Spanish red wines

The ethyl carbamate concentrations of four typical appelation contrô l é e Spanish red wines (Rioja, Ribera del Duero, Valdepeñas and Vinos de Madrid) were studied, and correlations sought with the alcoholic, volatile, acid and mineral concentrations. Data were analysed by principal components analysis (PCA) using either all eighteen variables studied or eight supposedly better correlated with ethyl carbamate concentration. Maximum wine ethyl carbamate levels were <25 μg/L; in some samples, levels of 3 or 4 μg/L were registered, in others no ethyl carbamate was detected at all. In the analysis involving eight variables, the strongest correlations were seen between ethyl carbamate and ethyl lactate and volatile acidity. Suggestions are made regarding the origin of ethyl carbamate in these wines.

Gas chromatography-olfactometry and chemical quantitative study of the aroma of six premium quality spanish aged red wines.

The aroma of six premium quality Spanish red wines has been studied by quantitative gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O) and techniques of quantitative chemical analysis. The GC-O study revealed the presence of 85 aromatic notes in which 78 odorants were identified, two of which-1-nonen-3-one (temptatively) and 2-acetylpyrazine-are reported in wine for the first time. Forty out of the 82 quantified odorants may be present at concentrations above their odor threshold. The components with the greatest capacity to introduce differences between these wines are ethyl phenols produced by Brettanomyces yeasts (4-ethylphenol, 4-ethyl-2-methoxyphenol, and 4-propyl-2-methoxyphenol), 2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone (furaneol), (Z)-3-hexenol, thiols derived from cysteinic precursors (4-methyl-4-mercaptopentan-2-one, 3-mercaptohexyl acetate, and 3-mercaptohexanol), some components yielded by the wood [(E)-isoeugenol, 4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol, vanillin, 2-methoxyphenol (guaiacol), and (Z)-whiskylactone], and compounds related to the metabolism (2-phenylethanol, ethyl esters of isoacids, 3-methylbutyl acetate) or oxidative degradation of amino acids [phenylacetaldehyde and 4,5-dimethyl-3-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone (sotolon)]. The correlation between the olfactometric intensities and the quantitative data is, in general, satisfactory if olfactometric differences between the samples are high. However, GC-O fails in detecting quantitative differences in those cases in which the olfactive intensity is very high or if odors elute in areas in which the odor chromatogram is too complex.

High tolerance of wild Lactobacillus plantarum and Oenococcus oeni strains to lyophilisation and stress environmental conditions of acid pH and ethanol

A total of 76 Lactobacillus plantarum and Oenococcus oeni wild strains were recovered from traditionally elaborated Spanish red wines and were investigated with respect to their response to acid pH, lyophilisation, temperature and ethanol concentrations which are normally lethal to lactic acid bacteria. Both L. plantarum and O. oeni strains were able to grow at pH 3.2, were highly resistant to lyophilisation treatment and proliferated in the presence of up to 13% ethanol at 18°C. Therefore, it is shown that both species are highly tolerant to stress conditions and that similarly to O. oeni strains, L. plantarum strains are of interest in beverage biotechnology.

Phenolic compounds in a Spanish red wine aged in barrels made of Spanish, French and American oak wood

A red Rioja wine was aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood for 21 months. The evolutions of colour percentage intensity, families of phenolic compounds and low molecular weight phenolic compounds were studied in these wines and compared with those of the same wine aged in barrels made of French and American oak. The analysis of chromatic parameters and total anthocyanins indicates that the wines aged in Spanish and French oak wood barrels have similar chromatic characteristics, but are significantly different to those of wines aged in barrels made of American oak wood, indicating a different degree of modification of the colour. The ageing process also had an important influence on the low molecular weight polyphenols composition of wine. The evolution of these components allowed the production of wines with different characteristics, in relation to the type of wood used in barrel making process. On the other hand, Spanish oak wood can be considered suitable for barrel production for quality wines, since a wine aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood showed similar and intermediate characteristics to those of the same wine aged in French and American oak woods.

LDL oxidizability indexes in measurement of antioxidant activity in selected Spanish wines

Spanish red, rosé and white wines were studied for antioxidant activity inhibiting the copper-catalyzed oxidation of human LDL in vitro. The following LDL oxidizability indexes were measured: Lag time, maximum rate of oxidation (Rmax), time needed to produce the maximum amount of dienes (Tmax), and concentration of antioxidant that increases lag time by 50% with respect to the control (CLT 50). The parameter CLT 50 was modified to eliminate the influence of LDL status. In all wines tested, lag time and Tmax increased with increasing concentration. A statistically significant correlation was found between the antioxidant activity of wines, expressed as CLT 50, and their total phenols.

Determination of anthocyanins in wine based on flow-injection, liquid–solid extraction, continuous evaporation and high-performance liquid chromatography–photometric detection

A continuous method, easy to automate, for the determination of anthocyanins in wine based on the coupling of continuous liquid–solid extraction, evaporation, HPLC individual separation and photometric detection is proposed. The target analytes are removed from the wine in a continuous fashion using a C 18 minicolumn and eluted with an aqueous solution (pH 2) with 16% acetonitrile. The eluted fraction is concentrated by solvent evaporation assisted by heat and dragging off the vapour using a flow of N 2. For in-line preconcentration, a continuous evaporation module was designed and located in the manifold between the solid-phase minicolumn and the injection valve of the chromatograph. In this way, injection of the sample into the dynamic system leads the plug through it for liquid–solid extraction of the anthocyanins, partial evaporation of the eluent (with a preconcentration factor as required) and transport to the high-pressure injection valve of the chromatograph, where individual separation and subsequent photometric detection take place. The method thus developed for the determination of malvidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside and peonidin-3-glucoside anthocyanins in Spanish red wines is more sensitive than the batch manual method based on the same steps, has better linearity of the calibrations curves with lower detection limits and much wider determination range for the most abundant anthocyanins in wine. In addition, the method can be fully automated with low acquisition and maintenance costs.

Relationship between Sensory Perception, Volatile and Phenolic Components in Commercial Spanish Red Wines from Different Regions

Polyphenols are an important fraction of the non-volatile components in the red wine matrix, and they are influenced in quantity and composition at all stages from the grape growing conditions until the time the wine is consumed. Evidence of their interaction with volatiles has been found, and this should affect wine flavour. A range of 12 commercial Spanish red wines from different regions and ages was analysed for their sensory properties, volatile composition in solution and headspace, and their non-volatile phenolic components. Maturation was the most important effect on sensory perception, while the chemical data showed also individual differences between the wines and their regions of production. Headspace volatiles and the phenolic fraction showed better correlations with the sensory perception, but volatiles in solution did not give a good prediction, though there were changes related to maturation. Some flavour components showed changes in their volatile behaviour in the matured wines. This supports the hypothesis that changes in the behaviour of the volatile fraction are related to the evolution of phenolic compounds.

Hedonic prices for Spanish red quality wine

In this paper, market values for most of wine attributes are measured through the estimation of a hedonic price function, which relates the price of a wine to its various attributes. As more expensive wines are also associated with higher recognition of wine attributes, results also reflect consumers’ valuation of wine attributes. Data used in this paper comes from a wine catalogue in which only price categories are available. As independent variables, the following wine attributes have been considered: region of production, the year vintage, grape variety, alcoholic content and expert quality ratings. Due to the nature of available data, the hedonic price function has been estimated in the form of a Multinomial Logit model. Results indicate that the two first variables (region of production and the year vintage) are the main market price determinants while grape variety and the alcoholic contents are not significantly correlated with red wine prices.

Analysis of some metals in wine by means of capillary electrophoresis. Application to the differentiation of Ribeira Sacra Spanish red wines

The content of some metals (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Mn and Li) in a variety of red wines produced in different geographi- cal zones of Galicia was determined in a single analysis by capillary electrophoresis. Data were processed using multivariate supervised and non-supervised chemometric techniques involving cluster analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), linear dis - criminant analysis (LDA), K nearest neighbours (KNN) and soft independent modelling of class analogy (SIMCA). The results obtained have allowed for the categorisation of wine samples according to their origin; the wines with Ribeira Sacra Certified Brand of Origin (CBO) can be differentiated from the wines of two other CBO from Galicia: Ribeiro and Valdeorras. The latter two types of wine are made with the same or similar grape varieties; hence, due to their similar organoleptic properties they a re possible substitutes for the falsification of Ribeira Sacra wines.

Multivariate differentiation of Spanish red wines according to region and variety

A total of 20 analytical parameters, including alcohols, total polyphenols and anthocyanins, colour and several normal oenological variables such as pH, total acidity and dry extract, were analysed in 66 red wines from two regions of Spain (Aragon and Navarra), made with seven different varieties of grapes (Graciano, Tempranillo, Grenache, Carignan, Merlot, Ruby Cabernet and Cabernet Sauvignon). Factor analysis of raw data provided a good description of the differences between production zones. With the exception of Ruby Cabernet, which presented very outstanding characteristics, grape variety characterisation was more difficult. In this sense, better results were obtained by means of stepwise discriminant analysis. At the end of the discriminant selection process, 94% of the training wines and 85% of the test wines were correctly classified by variety. These percentages were 89% (training sample set) and 92% (test wines) in the classification model obtained from the region. © 2000 Society of Chemical Industry

Piceid, the major resveratrol derivative in grape juices.

The levels of trans-piceid, cis-piceid, trans-resveratrol, and cis-resveratrol have been measured in 36 grape juices using an HPLC system with spectral analysis of eluting peaks. The piceid (glucosides) were the major component in the grape juices. In red grape juices the average concentrations were 3.38 mg/L for trans-piceid, 0.79 mg/L for cis-piceid, 0.50 mg/L for trans-resveratrol, and 0.06 mg/L for cis-resveratrol. In white grape juices the levels were, on average, 0.18 mg/L for trans-piceid, 0.26 mg/L for cis-piceid, and 0.05 mg/L for trans-resveratrol, and cis-resveratrol was not detected in any sample. Levels of total resveratrol (trans- and cis-resveratrol and -piceid) found in red and in white grape juices are similar to those described in Spanish red and white wines. Due to their resveratrol content, as well as other phenolics, grape juices may have a beneficial health effect of interest to those who cannot drink wine.

Analysis of phenolic compounds in Spanish red wines by capillary zone electrophoresis

A simple technique for the routine capillary electrophoretic analysis of phenolic compounds in red wines from different Spanish regions, is described. Separation was achieved using a fused-silica capillary column with a borate buffer at pH 9.5, and UV detection at 280 nm. The compounds identified were: (-)-epicatechin, (+)-catechin, (-)-epigallocatechin, syringic acid, vanillic acid, gallic acid, 3,4 dihydroxybenzoic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid and the hydroxycinnamic tartaric acid esterscis- andtrans-coumamyl tartaric acid andcis-caffeoyl tartaric acid. Different wines showed very similar electrophoretic profiles, but significant quantitative differences were observed.

Direct HPLC Analysis of cis- and trans-Resveratrol and Piceid Isomers in Spanish Red Vitis vinifera Wines

Direct HPLC Analysis of cis- and trans-Resveratrol and Piceid Isomers in Spanish Red Vitis vinifera Wines

Correlation Between Flavonoids and Color in Red Wines Aged in Wood

Principal component analysis and discriminant analysis were applied to the results of the analysis of anthocyanins, flavonols, and color parameters in Spanish red wines aged in wood and collected from various wineries in the Ribera de Duero Appellation of Origin region. Highlighted differences were founded among the wineries within the framework of the general standard established by that Appellation of Origin.

Reliability of the Spanish official method for colour of red wines in comparison with the CIE 1931-( x, y) method

The Spanish official method for determining the colour of a wine is based on a simplified adaptation of the selected ordinate method from CIE. Forty-seven samples of Spanish red wines from twelve ‘origin appellations’ have been tested by both methods. Differences between the chromatic variables calculated by both methods have been obtained for determining the reliability of the Spanish method. An interval of chromatic variables in which differences oscillated within a narrow range and another interval with a linear increase of differences were found. Some chromatic parameters show cutpoints between the two sets of samples. A discriminant analysis for classifying wines in the two sets has been carried out.