Spanish Proficiency Research Articles

Variability in heritage and second language writers’ linguistic complexity: Roles of proficiency and motivational beliefs

AbstractThis study investigates the extent to which (a) Spanish heritage (HL) and second language (L2) writers’ linguistic complexity differs across register contexts and (b) Spanish proficiency and writing motivational beliefs differentially affect HL and L2 writers’ performance. Participants were 58 HL and 54 L2 Spanish learners who completed two persuasive writing tasks—the Email to Friend and Letter to Dean tasks—designed to be topically similar while eliciting different registers. Proficiency measures included an elicited imitation task (EIT) and a cloze test. Mixed-effects models indicated that both HL and L2 writers evidenced greater lexico-syntactic complexity in the Letter to Dean task; nonetheless, HL writers demonstrated more robust cross-register distinctions in syntactic complexity. The EIT and cloze test positively predicted syntactic and lexical complexity, respectively, although differential patterns were also observed by group. Intrinsic/interest and cognitive/linguistic value beliefs about Spanish writing emerged as positive and negative predictors of linguistic complexity, respectively.

High frequency medical Spanish terminology: A corpus-based study of textbooks and reference materials

The purpose of this study is to identify high frequency medical Spanish terminology by building a corpus of medical Spanish textbooks and resources. By discovering the most common terms, instructors and curriculum designers can include salient topics in their courses, which will better serve the learners in these courses. To do so, medical Spanish textbooks and resources from 2012-2022 were uploaded to the corpus software AntConc. The final corpus consisted in a total of 26 resources and 1,421,163 tokens (or words). Word frequencies were calculated, and the top 3,000 most frequent terms were determined. A Semantic Rating Scale (Chung & Nation, 2003; Quero & Coxhead, 2018) was used to categorize words as general or technical. The top 3,000 words covered 38.9% of the entire corpus, and the most frequent words found in the medical Spanish resources were general Spanish vocabulary at 68.2%. The remaining 31.8% were medical Spanish technical terminology. The generation of these lists gives instructors and curriculum designers a tool to use in the development of medical Spanish courses that when combined with a patient-centered, communicative medical Spanish curriculum has the potential to enhance learners’ medical Spanish proficiency.

Current State and Proposal of Best Practices of Standardized Patients for Spanish-Language Objective Structured Clinical Encounters in US Medical Schools.

Medical Spanish programs commonly engage Spanish-speaking standardized patients (SPs) for communication skills assessment, yet no studies address SP recruitment, selection, or training. We sent questionnaires to medical Spanish faculty at 20 US medical schools to gauge their practices in recruiting and selecting Spanish-language SPs. We invited faculty to distribute a separate questionnaire to Spanish-language SPs to gather SP language abilities, training, and experience. We analyzed data using descriptive statistics and qualitative content analysis. When available, we reviewed SP video encounters to formally assess participating SPs' linguistic performance using the SP Oral Language Observation Matrix, a rating tool adapted from the Physician Oral Language Observation Matrix to assess oral medical Spanish proficiency. Eighty percent of faculty (16/20) responded. Standardized patient recruitment sources included institutional English-language SPs, Hispanic student groups and professional organizations, communities, and language professionals. Faculty-reported strategies to determine language readiness included interviewing SP candidates in Spanish and asking them to self-rate language skills using a validated scale. Fifteen SPs (54%, 15/28) from 5 schools responded to the SP questionnaire, and one third (5/15) reported that their Spanish was not assessed before being selected as an SP. In addition, one third (5/15) did not receive any initial training before performing a medical Spanish case. Raters assessed 11 different SPs using the SP Oral Language Observation Matrix, and 6 were rated as linguistically "ready" for the SP role. Current approaches to recruitment, training, and language assessment of SPs vary. We propose strategies to ensure that medical Spanish encounters authentically reflect Spanish-speaking patients.

6 Code-switching, Language Attitudes, and Executive Function in Latinx Bilinguals

Objective:Code-switching is when bilingual individuals alternate between two languages in the same conversation. Some studies find that code-switching frequency is associated with executive functioning, while others do not. Individual attitudes towards bilingual language use and code-switching may explain the inconsistency in the literature. For instance, greater positive attitudes towards code-switching may be associated with more likelihood to engage in that practice and thus strengthen the cognitive benefit in executive function. Additionally, code-switching between English and Spanish has been stigmatized in the U.S., therefore it is unclear what sociocultural factors may predict positive attitudes. In this study, we assessed Latinx bilinguals’ attitudes on code-switching and investigated their relationship with code-switching frequency, sociodemographic and linguistic factors, and executive functioning.Participants and Methods:Participants were 525 community-dwelling English-Spanish bilingual Latinx adults from the Offspring study (Mage= 55.38 (10.42); Meducation= 12.62 (3.34); 71% women; 41% tested in English, 75% immigrant). A language history questionnaire assessed for bilingualism and code-switching frequency. Participants completed 7 questions on code-switching attitudes on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree (e.g., “switching between languages in a conversation is an important part of my identity”), that were summed for a total score with higher scores indicating more positive attitudes. Executive functioning was assessed with the NIH Toolbox Cognition battery, verbal fluencies, and the digit span test. Sociodemographic and linguistic factors included age, sex, education, immigrant status, parental years of education, English and Spanish proficiency (average score on self-reported ratings on speaking, reading, writing, and understanding), and testing language. General linear models evaluated the association of code-switching attitudes on executive function, after adjusting for relevant covariates.Results:Positive code-switching attitudes were correlated with greater code-switching, r(499)=.33, p<.001. Younger age r(499)=-.11, being born in the US t(493)=-2.05, greater English proficiency r(497)=.15, and English dominance t(499)=2.22, were associated with more positive code-switching attitudes (all p’s <.05). Sex, education, parental years of education, and Spanish proficiency were not associated with code-switching attitudes. Overall models of attitudes with executive function indicated that positive code-switching attitudes were associated with worse visual working memory (b = -0.08, t(169) = -2.75, 95% CI [0.14, -0.02]) after adjusting for age, sex, education, immigration status, parental years of education and testing language. Code-switching attitudes were not significantly associated with other executive function measures.Conclusions:Among a community-based sample of bilingual middle-aged Latinx adults, positive attitudes towards code-switching were associated with greater likelihood of code-switching in conversations, higher English proficiency, being US born, younger age, and English language dominance but negatively associated with visual working memory. These findings indicate that code-switching attitudes are influenced by sociodemographic and linguistic factors. Additionally, the negative association between code-switching attitudes and visual working memory provides support for previous studies showing code-switching as a disadvantage to cognition. Results of this study suggest that detailed characterization of sociocultural factors and aspects of bilingualism can provide further clarity in determining if there is a potential bilingual cognitive advantage. Future research should examine the relationship of code-switching with other aspects of bilingualism (e.g., age of acquisition).

The Effect of Language on the Decision to Image in the Evaluation of Atraumatic Headache

BackgroundPatients with limited English proficiency seen in the emergency department (ED) experience lower quality of care and higher diagnostic resource utilization unless they are evaluated in their own language. Despite a low rate of serious pathology identified and the availability of guidelines to direct its use, computed tomography (CT) is commonly used to evaluate atraumatic headache in the ED. ObjectiveOur aim was to determine whether Spanish-speaking patients with atraumatic headache were more likely than their English-speaking counterparts to undergo head CT, and whether evaluation by a clinician who passed a Spanish proficiency test mitigated this difference. MethodsThis retrospective observational study used electronic health record data of adult patients presenting with atraumatic headache to a level I trauma center during a 2-year period. Spanish-language testing of clinicians consisted of a brief, unvalidated, in-person, nonmedical verbal test administered by human resources staff. ResultsA total of 3030 patients with atraumatic headache were identified; 1437 were English speaking and 1593 were Spanish speaking. Spanish-speaking patients were older (48.3 vs. 41.9 years), more likely to be women (68.8% vs. 60.5%), and more likely to undergo head CT (31.8% vs. 26.4%). Evaluation by a clinician who passed the Spanish proficiency test had no significant influence on the likelihood of head CT for Spanish-speaking patients after controlling for confounding variables (adjusted odds ratio 0.95; 95% CI 0.75–1.20). ConclusionsSpanish-speaking patients are more likely to undergo head CT when evaluated for atraumatic headache than English-speaking patients. Evaluation by a clinician who passed a brief Spanish proficiency test did not mitigate this disparity.

Speaking French, German and Spanish in Swedish lower secondary school

This study investigates levels of oral proficiency in French, German and Spanish attained by Swedish speaking students in lower secondary school. A total of 122 students performed two tasks: one production task and one interaction task. The oral performances were rated using scales from the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. The rating was done in successive steps by researchers in the project and external raters. The results show that slightly less than half of the students’ performances were rated at or above the expected proficiency level at the end of lower secondary school (A2.1). While there was no difference in rated levels between the two tasks, the performances by the students of German were significantly more often rated at or above the A2.1 level than the performances by students of French and Spanish. In the article, we discuss the results in relation to the few previous studies available on the topic, as well as some aspects of the learning conditions that might contribute to the interpretation of the results. In addition, certain structural phenomena regarding language education in Sweden are briefly considered in relation to equity at a general level.

Investigating the Development of Positive Peer Interactions in Low-Income Latino DLL Preschool Children

ABSTRACT Research Findings: There is limited research regarding socio-emotional development in low-income Latino Dual Language Learner (DLL) children. A total of 14 studies have been identified in a comprehensive review of the literature (Halle et al. 2014). Within these studies the majority have focused on problem behaviors within this population. Through a strength-based lens, the current study examined changes in the development of positive peer interactions of Latino DLLs across their preschool year, along with child-level and eco-cultural factors that may support this development. A total of 397 low-income preschool Latino DLL children participated in the study. Teachers completed the Penn Interactive Peer Play Scale (PIPPS-T) and the Preschool Learning Behaviors Scale (PLBS), children were assessed on oral language measures, and classroom observations took place using the CLASS. Findings indicate positive increases in Latino DLL children’s play interaction skills, along with decreases in problem behaviors across the preschool year. Emotional support, teacher’s Spanish proficiency, oral language skills, and approaches to learning were positively related to peer interaction scores. Practice or Policy: This study has important implications for practitioners regarding improving the positive peer interactions of Latino DLLs, specifically low-income children, enrolled in preschool classrooms and supports the use of the home language in the classroom.

Infinitive vs. Gerund Use and Interpretation in Heritage Spanish

The present study examines the production and interpretation of infinitives among 26 Spanish heritage speakers born and raised in the US and 25 Spanish-dominant speakers from Mexico and Colombia. We tested participants’ knowledge of infinitives as subjects of the clause and as objects of a preposition via an elicited production task and a contextualized preference task. The results of both tasks showed less infinitive use by the HSs and overextension of the gerund in contexts where it is not required. The results showed that the gerund overextension was modulated by the syntactic context. There was significantly more use of the gerund as the subject of the clause in both production and interpretation and less use as the object of a preposition. Furthermore, the results showed a significant role for proficiency and language experience in the extent of grammatical reconfiguration. The higher the level of Spanish proficiency and the more exposure and use of Spanish, the more likely the participants were to produce and choose infinitives. Results are discussed along the lines of the activation approach.

Validity Evidence for the Physician Oral Language Observation Matrix as a Measure of Medical Spanish Proficiency.

The lack of a standardized language assessment process for medical students and physicians communicating in a non-English language threatens healthcare quality and safety. To evaluate the validity of a new rating tool, the Physician Oral Language Observation Matrix (POLOM)™, in assessing medical students' oral communication with Spanish-speaking standardized patients (SPs). POLOM scores were compared to measures of student medical Spanish proficiency to examine convergent validity and to measures of clinical performance to examine concurrent/criterion validity. Forty-two students at two schools completed SP encounters between January 2021 and April 2022, and POLOM raters scored the videorecorded performances between January and June 2022. Two approaches to generating POLOM total scores were investigated: rater average and strict consensus. Convergent validity was examined via the POLOM's correlations with (1) the phone-based Clinician Cultural and Linguistic Assessment (CCLA) and (2) the self-rated Interagency Language Roundtable scale for healthcare (ILR-H). Concurrent/criterion validity was examined via correlations with (1) the Comunicación y Habilidades Interpersonales (CAI) scale, (2) a checklist completed by the SP, and (3) a faculty rating of the student's post-encounter clinical note. Pearson's correlations of r ≥ 0.5 and r ≥ 0.2 were considered evidence of convergent validity and concurrent/criterion validity, respectively. Both rater average and strict consensus POLOM scores were strongly correlated with ILR-H (r = 0.72) and CCLA (r ≥ 0.60), providing evidence of convergent validity. The POLOM was substantially correlated with the CAI (r ≥ 0.29), the SP Checklist (r = 0.32), and the faculty scoring of the student's clinical note (r ≥ 0.24), providing concurrent/criterion validity evidence. The POLOM has demonstrated evidence of convergent and concurrent/criterion validity as a measure of medical students' Spanish proficiency during SP encounters. Additional research is needed to evaluate how the POLOM can be implemented with resident and practicing physicians, applied to other health professions, and adapted to other languages.

Mediated Bricolage and the Sociolinguistic Co-Construction of No Sabo Kids

Sociolinguistic styles and the resultant ascribed identities are understood as the product of simultaneous variables, leading to the notion of bricolage, or the co-occurrence of variables and their collective indexical meanings. Relatively little attention has been paid to these processes as they manifest on social media platforms. The goal of the current paper is to understand which linguistic and thematic features co-occur in the online production of the no sabo kid style and identity, which manifests as a form of linguistic discrimination towards U.S. Latinx youth. “Hashtag communities” were used to locate posts about no sabo kids on TikTok (N = 95), and videos were automatically and manually coded for salient linguistic and discursive resources in the online no sabo kid community. The results show the co-occurrence of code-switching and phonological and lexical variation, alongside discursive themes, namely ‘proficiency’, ‘ethnicity’, and ‘performative lexical gaps’. I argue that the no sabo kid hashtag community is a mediated manifestation of ideologies surrounding U.S. Latinx bilinguals, where a supposed lack of proficiency in Spanish and grammatical blending of Spanish and English index inauthentic ethnicity. Mediated instantiations of sociolinguistic styles shed light on how linguistic features become enregistered through multimodality and semiotic bricolage.

Language-Concordant Care: a Qualitative Study Examining Implementation of Physician Non-English Language Proficiency Assessment

BackgroundLanguage concordance can increase access to care for patients with language barriers and improve patient health outcomes. However, systematically assessing and tracking physician non-English language skills remains uncommon in most health systems. This is a missed opportunity for health systems to maximize language-concordant care.ObjectiveTo determine barriers and facilitators to participation in non-English language proficiency assessment among primary care physicians.DesignQualitative, semi-structured interviews.ParticipantsEleven fully and partially bilingual primary care physicians from a large academic health system with a language certification program (using a clinician oral proficiency interview).ApproachInterviews aimed to identify barriers and facilitators to participation in non-English language assessment. Two researchers independently and iteratively coded transcripts using a thematic analysis approach with constant comparison to identify themes.Key ResultsMost participants were women (N= 9; 82%). Participants reported proficiency in Cantonese, Mandarin, Russian, and Spanish. All fully bilingual participants (n=5) had passed the language assessment; of the partially bilingual participants (n=6), four did not test, one passed with marginal proficiency, and one did not pass. Three themes emerged as barriers to assessment participation: (1) beliefs about the negative consequences (emotional and material) of not passing the test, (2) time constraints and competing demands, and (3) challenging test format and structure. Four themes emerged as facilitators to increase assessment adoption: (1) messaging consistent with professional ethos, (2) organizational culture that incentivizes certification, (3) personal empowerment about language proficiency, and (4) individuals championing certification.ConclusionsTo increase language assessment participation and thus ensure quality language-concordant care, health systems must address the identified barriers physicians experience and leverage potential facilitators. Findings can inform health system interventions to standardize the requirements and process, increase transparency, provide resources for preparation and remediation, utilize messaging focused on patient care quality and safety, and incentivize participation.

Speakers of different languages remember visual scenes differently.

Language can have a powerful effect on how people experience events. Here, we examine how the languages people speak guide attention and influence what they remember from a visual scene. When hearing a word, listeners activate other similar-sounding words before settling on the correct target. We tested whether this linguistic coactivation during a visual search task changes memory for objects. Bilinguals and monolinguals remembered English competitor words that overlapped phonologically with a spoken English target better than control objects without name overlap. High Spanish proficiency also enhanced memory for Spanish competitors that overlapped across languages. We conclude that linguistic diversity partly accounts for differences in higher cognitive functions such as memory, with multilinguals providing a fertile ground for studying the interaction between language and cognition.

Bilingual Vocabulary Assessment: Examining Single-Language, Conceptual, and Total Scoring Approaches.

This study explored approaches for measuring vocabulary among bilingual children with varying levels of proficiency in Spanish and English. One hundred fifteen kindergarten and first-grade Spanish-English-speaking children completed measures of vocabulary and sentence repetition in Spanish and English. Scores were derived from their responses to the vocabulary measure: Spanish-only vocabulary, English-only vocabulary, conceptual vocabulary, and total vocabulary. Best language sentence repetition was also obtained. Using both visualization of data and statistical analysis, we tested for potential associations between children's relative language skills in Spanish and English and the scores they received on each of the vocabulary metrics. Participants' single-language vocabulary scores were linearly associated with their relative language scores. Higher relative Spanish language skills corresponded with higher Spanish-only vocabulary scores, and higher English language skills corresponded with higher English-only vocabulary scores. A quadratic association between children's relative language and their conceptual vocabulary scores was observed. Children with more balanced skills in Spanish and English received lower scores for conceptual vocabulary. No association between total vocabulary and relative language was observed. Results revealed evidence of differential test bias for single-language vocabulary scores and conceptual vocabulary scores. Spanish-only vocabulary underestimated knowledge of participants with higher English proficiency, whereas English-only vocabulary underestimated knowledge of participants with higher Spanish proficiency. Conceptual scoring yielded lower values for participants with relatively balanced proficiency in Spanish and English. There is need for further consideration of score and test functioning across the full continuum of bilinguals with dynamic proficiencies in each of their languages. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.23796330.

Obviating the mood, but mostly under control: Spanish heritage speakers’ acquisition of the binding constraints of desiderative complements

ABSTRACT Verbal morphology has been identified as a particularly vulnerable domain for adult heritage speakers (HSs) of Spanish, especially when it involves the selection of subjunctive mood. A minimal amount is known, however, about the potential effects of the variability associated with these forms on the acquisition of related epiphenomena, such as the anaphoric relations and binding constraints of complements that select subjunctive. The present investigation addresses this gap in the research by focusing on how HSs express and interpret subject co-referentiality and disjoint reference in desiderative constructions. Results from two experimental tasks (a Truth-Value judgment and a Sentence Completion task) revealed that participants’ Spanish proficiency was a significant predictor of their performance. In particular, more advanced HSs exhibited a higher likelihood of linking the presence of subjunctive to subject disjoint reference (a pattern observed among most Spanish controls) and a higher probability of using this form to express subject disjoint-reference in production. Furthermore, optionality in this domain was significantly linked to the degree to which HSs restructured the referential properties associated with subjunctive complements. Specifically, participants who exhibited lower rates of structural and morphological variability in connection to the expression of disjoint-reference also appeared to be more likely to assign this reading to the null subjects of subjunctive complements and reject the possibility of subject co-referentiality. These findings provide new evidence of how syntactic dependencies such as subject obviation and control are developed among heritage speakers of Spanish and explore the potential role of structural and morphological optionality in their (re)-configuration.

A socio-psychological analysis of goal-setting when deciding to learn a second language

Abstract This study bridges a gap in the current research on motivation and demotivation learning a second language (L2). It is meant to provide an overview of students’ goal setting when they start to learn an L2 at university level in Australia. Drawing on goal-setting and learning goal orientation constructs (cf. Miller, 2020), goal formation is deconstructed and analysed to throw new light on students’ psychological processes identified at the micro level and the influences on goal setting stemming from the social context at the macro level in which students operate. The interaction between the two levels is explored in order to understand which dynamics lie behind research participants’ desire of gaining proficiency in French, German, Italian, and Spanish. Qualitative data analysis outcomes are shown in an attempt to provide clear and applicable pedagogical suggestions for L2 practitioners (see, e.g., Al-Hoorie et al., 2021).

Bridging Assessment and Learning A Cognitive Diagnostic Analysis of a Large-scale Spanish Proficiency Test

Bridging Assessment and Learning A Cognitive Diagnostic Analysis of a Large-scale Spanish Proficiency Test

Medical Student Perceptions of Sociocultural Issues in Healthcare: A Multisite Study of Medical Spanish Education

Theory Cultural competence and humility are core elements of medical education in a diverse society. Language is inseparable from culture, as language informs, indexes, frames, and encodes both culture and worldview. Spanish is the most common non-English language taught in U.S. medical schools, yet medical Spanish courses tend to artificially separate language from culture. It is unknown to what extent medical Spanish courses advance students’ sociocultural knowledge or patient care skills. Hypotheses Based on current predominant pedagogy, medical Spanish classes may not adequately integrate sociocultural issues relevant to Hispanic/Latinx health. We hypothesized that students who completed a medical Spanish course would not demonstrate significant gains in sociocultural skills following the educational intervention. Method An interprofessional team developed a sociocultural questionnaire, and 15 medical schools invited their students to complete the questionnaire before and after completing a medical Spanish course. Of participating schools, 12 implemented a standardized medical Spanish course and three served as control sites. Survey data were analyzed regarding: (1) perceived sociocultural competence (recognition of common cultural beliefs, recognition of culturally normative non-verbal cues, gestures, and social behaviors, ability to address sociocultural issues in healthcare context, and knowledge of health disparities); (2) application of sociocultural knowledge; and (3) demographic factors and self-rated language proficiency (Poor, Fair, Good, Very Good, or Excellent) on the Interagency Language Roundtable scale for healthcare (ILR-H). Results Overall, 610 students participated in sociocultural questionnaire between January 2020 and January 2022. After the course, participants reported an increased understanding of cultural aspects of communication with Spanish-speaking patients and the ability to apply sociocultural knowledge to patient care (all p < 0.001). When analyzed by demographic factors, students who identified as Hispanic/Latinx or as heritage speakers of Spanish tended to report increased sociocultural knowledge/skills following the course. When examined by Spanish proficiency, preliminary trends showed that students at both ILR-H Poor and Excellent levels did not demonstrate gains in sociocultural knowledge or ability to apply sociocultural skills. Students at sites with a standardized course were likely to improve sociocultural skills in mental health conversations (p < 0.001) while students at control sites were not (p = 0.05). Conclusions Medical Spanish educators may benefit from additional guidance on teaching sociocultural aspects of communication. Our findings support that students at ILR-H levels of Fair, Good, and Very Good are particularly well-suited for gaining sociocultural skills in current medical Spanish courses. Future studies should explore potential metrics to evaluate cultural humility/competence within actual interactions with patients.

Refined by Fire: Examining Acculturation, Resilience, and Crucible Experiences of U.S. Latinas in Public Relations

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to examine how crucible experiences (i.e. transformative life experiences) influence the leadership development of U.S. Latinas in public relations. Through 24 in-depth interviews with mid-management and senior-level Latina public relations leaders, the findings suggest that crucible experiences differed between immigrant and first-generation Latinas and non-immigrant Latinas in topics such as language expectations (proficiency in English or Spanish), bicultural identity, cultural and social isolation, and access to power structures. They met their career and personal challenges mainly through advocacy, seeking instrumental support, and resilience. This unique inquiry fills the literature gap by proposing a new theoretical framework that examines how intercultural identities and crucible experiences influenced their PR leadership development, and underscores the growing importance of DEI in public relations.

Practice beats age: co-activation shapes heritage speakers' lexical access more than age of onset.

Probabilistic associations make language processing efficient and are honed through experience. However, it is unclear what language experience factors explain the non-monolingual processing behaviors typical of L2 learners and heritage speakers (HSs). We investigated whether AoO, language proficiency, and language use affect the recognition of Spanish stress-tense suffix associations involving a stressed syllable that cues a present suffix (SALta "s/he jumps") and an unstressed syllable that cues a past suffix (SALtó "s/he jumped"). Adult Spanish-English HSs, English-Spanish L2 learners, and Spanish monolinguals saw a paroxytone verb (stressed initial syllable) and an oxytone verb (unstressed initial syllable), listened to a sentence containing one of the verbs, and chose the one they heard. Spanish proficiency measured grammatical and lexical knowledge, and Spanish use assessed percentage of current usage. Both bilingual groups were comparable in Spanish proficiency and use. Eye-tracking data showed that all groups fixated on target verbs above chance before hearing the syllable containing the suffix, except the HSs in the oxytones. Monolinguals fixated on targets more and earlier, although at a slower rate, than HSs and L2 learners; in turn, HSs fixated on targets more and earlier than L2 learners, except in oxytones. Higher proficiency increased target fixations in HSs (oxytones) and L2 learners (paroxytones), but greater use only increased target fixations in HSs (oxytones). Taken together, our data show that HSs' lexical access depends more on number of lexical competitors (co-activation of two L1 lexica) and type (phonotactic) frequency than token (lexical) frequency or AoO. We discuss the contribution of these findings to models in phonology, lexical access, language processing, language prediction, and human cognition.

Bilingual teacher candidates and their professors: Efforts to pass a Spanish proficiency certification exam

ABSTRACT Heritage Spanish speakers (HSSs) in the U.S. who seek certification as bilingual teachers must show Spanish language proficiency. The state of Texas requires candidates to pass the Bilingual Target Language Proficiency Test (BTLPT) a test seen as a gatekeeping mechanism (Clark & Flores, 2002) in a field that presents chronic shortage of certified teachers (Arroyo-Romano, 2016). This case study of a bilingual education preparation program (BEPP) in Texas reveals the efforts by both professors to help and students to pass the BTLPT. Findings report on faculty and candidate narrative accounts of pedagogical practices. Recommendations emerged from faculty and students’ suggestions for improving test-preparation and Spanish development of HSSs teacher candidates. The authors respond to Guerrero’s (2013) recommendation for “more concrete measures to help pre-service bilingual teachers improve their language skills” (p. 2) and accepts Zúñiga’s (2021) invitation for teacher educators to find venues to share how we “go about supporting bilingual TCs [teacher candidates] in their professional development” (p. 228). The study offers directions for action within BEPPs, universities with HSSs students, and the PK-20 school system. Heritage Spanish speakers (HSSs) in the U.S. who seek certification as bilingual teachers must show Spanish language proficiency. The state of Texas requires candidates to pass the Bilingual Target Language Proficiency Test (BTLPT) a test seen as a gatekeeping mechanism (Clark & Flores, 2002) in a field that presents chronic shortage of certified teachers (Arroyo-Romano, 2016). This case study of a bilingual education preparation program (BEPP) in Texas reveals the efforts by both professors to help and students to pass the BTLPT. Findings report on faculty and candidate narrative accounts of pedagogical practices. Recommendations emerged from faculty and students’ suggestions for improving test-preparation and Spanish development of HSSs teacher candidates. The authors respond to Guerrero’s (2013) recommendation for “more concrete measures to help pre-service bilingual teachers improve their language skills” (p. 2) and accepts Zúñiga’s (2021) invitation for teacher educators to find venues to share how we “go about supporting bilingual TCs [teacher candidates] in their professional development” (p. 228). The study offers directions for action within BEPPs, universities with HSSs students, and the PK-20 school system. Heritage Spanish speakers (HSSs) in the U.S. who seek certification as bilingual teachers must show Spanish language proficiency. The state of Texas requires candidates to pass the Bilingual Target Language Proficiency Test (BTLPT) a test seen as a gatekeeping mechanism (Clark & Flores, 2002) in a field that presents chronic shortage of certified teachers (Arroyo-Romano, 2016). This case study of a bilingual education preparation program (BEPP) in Texas reveals the efforts by both professors to help and students to pass the BTLPT. Findings report on faculty and candidate narrative accounts of pedagogical practices. Recommendations emerged from faculty and students’ suggestions for improving test-preparation and Spanish development of HSSs teacher candidates. The authors respond to Guerrero’s (2013) recommendation for “more concrete measures to help pre-service bilingual teachers improve their language skills” (p. 2) and accepts Zúñiga’s (2021) invitation for teacher educators to find venues to share how we “go about supporting bilingual TCs [teacher candidates] in their professional development” (p. 228). The study offers directions for action within BEPPs, universities with HSSs students, and the PK-20 school system.