Spanish Oak Research Articles

Comparative study on the use of seasoned or unseasoned casks made of wood from different origins for the ageing of Sherry vinegar.

In the present study, the ageing process of Sherry vinegar in used (seasoned) or new casks made of chestnut, American oak, Spanish oak or French oak wood has been investigated, considering that no research has investigated whether this seasoning has a definite influence on the final composition of the aged beverage. The polyphenolic and volatile contents of the aged vinegars were determined and their sensory properties were evaluated. Different statistical tools were applied to the data collected. With respect to polyphenolic contents, ageing time was the most influential factor, followed by the seasoned-cask factor. The type of wood was only significant for gallic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, methylfurfural, ethyl gallate, ferulic acid, coniferyl aldehyde and sinapaldehyde. Principal component analysis according to polyphenols did not allow the samples to be differentiated, whereas cluster analysis revealed a slight grouping trend according to ageing time and seasoning of the wood. In relation to volatile compounds, variance analysis revealed that, again, ageing time and cask-seasoning were the most significant factors, with the samples clustering according to these two parameters. Following the sensory study, a clear difference between seasoned and new cask vinegars could be established as a result of the high scores in olfactory quality obtained for those vinegars aged in new casks. This was probably because of an excess of the descriptor 'ethyl acetate' exhibited by seasoned-cask Sherry vinegars. The previous seasoning of the casks together with the ageing time conditioned the composition of the vinegars aged in casks of different botanical origin, which translated into differences at a sensory level. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

The profile of phenolic compounds by HPLC-MS in Spanish oak (Quercus) honeydew honey and their relationships with color and antioxidant activity

Due to the importance of the authentication of the botanical and geographical origin of honey, this document is focused on the use of phenols as potential chemical markers in an attempt to distinguish and characterize one of the non-floral honey types, oak (Quercus sp.) honey, from other honeydew honeys produced in other regions. The development and validation of ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry detection enables the identification of 23 phenolic compounds in 58 Spanish oak honeydew honey samples. The proposed compounds, above all salicylic acid (mean = 24.31 mg 100 g−1), but also p-coumaric acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, syringic acid, naringenin, and galangin could further contribute as a helpful tool in the quality control of this non-floral honey, and therefore distinguish it from European honeydew honey and those from other regions. Furthermore, many positive correlations between phenolic compounds, CIELAB color parameters, and antioxidant activity are established. This research presents a complete phenolic composition and the largest sampling of one of the most appreciated honeydew honey varieties. This is also one of the singular studies that have successfully linked individual phenolic acids and flavonoids with physicochemical parameters within the same unifloral honey.

Olfactometric and sensory evaluation of red wines subjected to ultrasound or microwaves during their maceration or ageing stages

In the present work, we have studied the effect that some extraction techniques, such as ultrasound or microwaves, produce on the aroma of red wines, when applied to processes of extractive nature, such as pre-fermentative maceration or ageing with oak chips (Spanish oak – Quercus pyrenaica and French oak – Quercus robur). The volatile profile has been studied by means of gas chromatography coupled with olfactometric and mass spectrometric detection. Sensory analysis of all the wines produced has also been conducted. Although no indications were found to show that the pre-fermentative treatment with microwaves or ultrasound modified the sensory profile of the wines, the application of such energies during the ageing phase showed some positive trends at sensory level, also confirmed by the olfactometric measurements. The application of ultrasound during the ageing of the wines resulted in a greater contribution of red fruits, aromatic intensity and wood than that obtained through microwaves. Regarding the type of oak chips, Spanish oak provided more volatile compounds than French oak and with a lower proportion of undesirable aromas. At the sensory level, Spanish oak also showed greater aromatic intensity and higher values for the wood descriptor, being preferred by the panel of judges.

Effects of declining oak vitality on ecosystem multifunctionality: Lessons from a Spanish oak woodland

Mediterranean oak woodlands are currently facing unprecedented degradation threats from oak decline. The Iberian oak decline “Seca”, related to Phytophthora infection, causes crown defoliation that may adversely affect ecosystem services (ESs). We aim to improve our understanding of how Seca-induced declines in crown foliation affect the provision of multiple ecosystem services from understory vegetation. We selected holm (Quercus ilex) and cork oak (Q. suber) trees in a Spanish oak woodland and evaluated three proxies of canopy effects. One proxy (crown defoliation) solely captured Seca-dependent effects, one proxy solely captured Seca-independent effects (tree dimensions such as diameter and height), while the third proxy (tree vigor) captured overall canopy effects. We then used the best-performing proxies to assess canopy effects on key ecosystem services (ESs) such as above-ground net primary production (ANPP), grass and legume biomass, species diversity, litter decomposition rates, and a combined index of ecosystem multifunctionality.We found that both types of canopy effects (i.e. Seca-dependent and Seca-independent effects) were related, indicating that ANPP was disproportionally more affected by Seca when defoliated trees were large. Responses of other ESs were mostly not significant, although lower species diversity was found under trees with intermediate vigor. Our results underline that a Seca-related decline in canopy density triggered a homogenization of ecosystem service delivery on the ecosystem scale. The ecosystem functions (EFs) under trees of low vigor are similar to that in adjacent open microsites indicating that the presence of vigorous (i.e. old and vital) trees is critical for maintaining EFs at a landscape level. Our results also highlight the importance of quantifying not only defoliation but also tree dimensions as both factors jointly and interactively modify canopy effects on ecosystem multifunctionality.

Chemical content and sensory changes of Oloroso Sherry wine when aged with four different wood types

Oloroso Sherry Wine is a fortified Sherry wine obtained by oxidation and ageing in American oak barrels of 500 L–600 L. In this work, the study of the suitability of other types of woods for the ageing of these wines was carried out. To compare the characteristics of the alternative woods, an oloroso wine was aged in four groups of 16 L barrels made of French oak, Spanish oak, chestnut, as well as American oak as control, with intense and medium toasting. Phenolic and furanic compounds, organic acids, volatile compounds, color characteristics, total polyphenol index and sensory analysis of wines aged for two months were analyzed. The results confirmed that the aged samples could be differentiated on the basis of their chemical composition, and that the use of alternative woods to age oloroso Sherry wines, and the level of wood toasting, had the potential to provide products with specific differences to the traditional aged in American oak. Furthermore, the organoleptic characteristics of these alternative wines were valued above a standard Sherry wine.

Colour evolution kinetics study of spirits in their ageing process in wood casks

The colour of alcoholic beverages increases as they are aged in wood casks, due to the oxidation of the extracted phenols and tannic substances. In this paper, sixteen ageing experiments were carried out involving four different types of wood (American oak, French oak, Spanish oak and Chestnut), two toasting intensities (intense and medium toasting) and three initial wine distillates (holanda, wine spirit from a rectification column distillation and wine spirit from double distillation). Our experiments measured the CIEDE2000 colour difference as a control parameter for eight weeks. Four kinetic models were applied to better comprehend the evolution of the colour: Lagergren's first-order model, Peleg's pseudo-second-order model, an intra-particle diffusion model and a parabolic diffusion model. Differences on the non-linear correlation coefficients obtained by the Lagergren's and the Peleg's models show that the extractions are better fitted by the Peleg's model, leading to deduce that the colour obtained in the ageing process of the spirit is a second-order kinetic procedure. Differences between both diffusion models show that colours obtained from holandas are more strongly affected by side-reactions than colours obtained from wine spirits, probably due to their higher content in non-alcoholic compounds. Peleg's parameters show that toasting pre-treatments of wood also affect the kinetics of the colour obtained: intense toasted woods produce intense colours at the beginning of the ageing process, although medium toasted woods seem to produce more colour when equilibrium is reached.

Use of ultrasound at a pilot scale to accelerate the ageing of sherry vinegar

In the present work, the accelerated ageing process of sherry vinegar has been studied at pilot scale by means of the joint application of ultrasound, micro-oxygenation and wood chips (American oak, French oak and Spanish oak). The CIELab parameters have been studied as well as the polyphenolic and volatile content of the aged vinegar samples. Vinegars aged with American oak presented different chromatic characteristics to those aged with French and Spanish oak and a lower polyphenolic and volatile content than the latter ones. On the other hand, Spanish oak generated vinegars with a higher content of volatile compounds and an intermediate polyphenolic profile between those obtained using French and American oak. In addition, the use of ultrasound for a period between 4 and 21 days, generated vinegars with similar characteristics to others that were aged in the traditional way for between 2 and 6 months. It has been demonstrated that the use of ultrasound, combined with micro-oxygenation and chip addition, is a technique which can accelerate the ageing process of vinegars at a pilot scale, so it could be a viable alternative to obtain sherry vinegars aged in a shorter time.

Use of Alternative Wood for the Ageing of Brandy de Jerez.

The use of alternative types of wood has arisen for the aging of the Brandy de Jerez, on a pilot plant level. In particular, besides the use of American oak, two more types of oak have been studied, French oak and Spanish oak, allowed by the Technical File for the ID Brandy de Jerez, and chestnut, which, though it is not officially allowed, is a type of wood which had been traditionally used in the area for the aging of wines and distillates. All of them have been studied with different toasting levels: Intense toasting and medium toasting. The study of the total phenolic composition (TPI), chromatic characteristics, organic acids, and sensory analysis have proven that chestnut leads to distillates with a higher amount of phenolic compounds and coloring intensity than oak. This behavior is the opposite as regards the toasting of the wood. Among the different types of oak, Spanish oak produces aged distillates with a higher phenolic composition and a higher color intensity. Regarding tasting, the best-assessed samples were those aged with chestnut, French oak, and American oak, and the assessors preferred those who had used a medium toasting level to those with an intense level.

Suitability of alternative wood types other than American oak wood for the ageing of Sherry vinegar

The present study has consisted on the monitoring of Sherry vinegar during a whole year ageing in American oak, French oak, Spanish oak and chestnut barrels in order to determine the suitability of alternative wood types other than American oak for the ageing of this type of vinegar. Thirty-two volatile compounds were quantified, CIELab parameters were determined and sensory analyses were carried out during the whole process. The multivariate analysis of the data revealed that the samples that had been aged in Spanish oak barrels were getting more similar to those aged in French oak as the ageing process was progressing. Furthermore, the samples that had been aged in chestnut presented some volatile compounds significantly different from American oak. Finally, although French oak wood transferred the best organoleptic characteristics to Sherry vinegar, Spanish oak and chestnut seemed to be satisfactory alternatives for the ageing process.

Discrimination of aging wines with alternative oak products and micro-oxygenation by FTIR-ATR

The use of alternative oak wood products (AOP), such as chips, cubes and staves, among other, from different geographical origins is a common practice for wine aging, where the micro-oxygenation (MOX, adding small doses of oxygen constantly over time) is essential to obtain a final wine more stable in time and with similar characteristics of barrel-aged wine. The aim of this work was to identify if spectroscopic techniques allow to discriminate wines aged with alternative oak products (chips and staves) from different oak woods (American, French and Spanish) and a floating micro-oxygenation (20 µg·L−1) after 10 years of bottling and compared to those aged in barrels. The spectral information and analysis were performed in a FTIR-ATR, with 128 scans per spectrum at a spectral resolution of 8 cm-1 in the wavenumber range from 4,000 to 450 cm-1. Principal component analyses of spectral information were performed using the Unscrambler® X. The results indicate that with this technique it is possible to clearly separate the wines aged by the three systems (chips, staves and barrels) in the case of American oak. In the case of French oak, wines aged in chips were clearly differentiated from wines aged in staves with those aged in barrels between the two. It is also possible to clearly separate aged wines with different Spanish oak systems. The application of FTIR-ATR appears to be a powerful technique for discriminating the quality of wines aged by different AOPs and wood barrels from different geographical origins.

Site-specific distribution of oak rhizosphere-associated oomycetes revealed by cytochrome c oxidase subunit II metabarcoding.

The phylum Oomycota comprises important tree pathogens like Phytophthora quercina, involved in central European oak decline, and Phytophthora cinnamomi shown to affect holm oaks among many other hosts. Despite the importance to study the distribution, dispersal and niche partitioning of this phylum, metabarcoding surveys, and studies considering environmental factors that could explain oomycete community patterns are still rare. We investigated oomycetes in the rhizosphere of evergreen oaks in a Spanish oak woodland using metabarcoding based on Illumina sequencing of the taxonomic marker cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (cox2). We developed an approach amplifying a 333 bp long fragment using the forward primer Hud‐F (Mycologia, 2000) and a reverse primer found using DegePrime (Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2014). Factors reflecting topo‐edaphic conditions and tree health were linked to oomycete community patterns. The majority of detected OTUs belonged to the Peronosporales. Most taxa were relatives of the Pythiaceae, but relatives of the Peronosporaceae and members of the Saprolegniales were also found. The most abundant OTUs were related to Globisporangium irregulare and P. cinnamomi, both displaying strong site‐specific patterns. Oomycete communities were strongly correlated with the environmental factors: altitude, crown foliation, slope and soil skeleton and soil nitrogen. Our findings illustrate the significance of small scale variation in habitat conditions for the distribution of oomycetes and highlight the importance to study oomycete communities in relation to such ecological patterns.

Physicochemical properties, colour, chemical composition, and antioxidant activity of Spanish Quercus honeydew honeys

The emergent market for honeydew honeys in Europe prompt to increasing requirements of consumers and honey industry for the characterisation of this type of honey. The aim of this study was to characterise 59 samples of Spanish oak honeydew honeys. Physicochemical properties showed values within the limits established by the legislation and typical for honeydew honeys. Honeys were differentiated into two groups according to the hue (hab) and all were classified as dark honeys (L* < 55). A total of 14 minerals were determined, with K, P, Mg, and Ca being the most abundant. The development and validation of an HPLC method allowed the determination of the contents of two monosaccharides, five disaccharides, and two trisaccharides. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents showed mean values of 130.2 mg/100 g and 11.3 mg/100 g of honey, respectively. Honeydew honeys showed ability to scavenge free radicals and to inhibit lipid peroxidation, which is very interesting, because, as far as we know, there are no previous studies for this type of honey. Results showed that all honeydew honeys are a source of chemical compounds with nutritional and antioxidant properties that could be of interest for consumers and food industry.

The spatial distribution of animal casualties within a road corridor: Implications for roadkill monitoring in the southern Iberian rangelands

We assessed wildlife roadkill spatial patterns focusing on asphalt roads in southern Spanish oak rangelands (“dehesas”). Four roads in the Sierra Morena range (Andalusia) were surveyed twice during autumn-winter 2009–2010 and spring-summer 2010. Roadsides were walked on both sides across the total road length (53 km; overall length walked per season = 106 km) for each field season by 1–4 trained observers at ∼1–2 km/h. Asphalt surface, road verges/shoulders, runoff ditches and road banks/slopes (neighboring habitat) were exhaustively inspected for all dead vertebrates, which were georeferenced and identified. Roadkills (N = 396) were classified into 67 species (5 amphibians, 7 reptiles, 37 birds and 18 mammals). In total, 128 (32.3%) of all roadkills were found within the road asphalt lanes, with the remaining two-thirds (268, 67.7%) outside the asphalt lanes. This pattern was consistent regardless of season and several structural attributes of roads. However, vertebrate class was determinant, with more poiquilotherms (amphibians and reptiles) being detected inside asphalt compared to birds and mammals (off-asphalt casualties were significantly more numerous). This is a strong argument in favor of recommending surveying roadkill on foot as a main survey method or complementarily to vehicle surveys.

Palynological and geographical characterisation of Spanish oak honeydew honeys

The emergent market for honeydew honey mostly in Europe has prompted increasing requirements by consumers and the honey industry for the characterisation of this type of honey. This work is a contribution to the limited knowledge of honeydew honeys in Spain. Botanical characterisation was performed on 59 honeydew honey samples from professional beekeepers hives distributed within Spain. The quantitative analysis reveals more than 75% of the samples belong to Maurizio Classes II and III, and that, in general, the Spanish Quercus honeydew honeys are characterised by medium high pollen grain content (Pn; mean = 285 197) and honeydew elements (HDEs; mean = 15 850). The analysis also resulted in the identification of spores of several fungal genera (Alternaria, Cladosporium, Drechslera, Geotrichum, Phithomyces, Stemhylium, Torula, Ulocladium and Venturia). All honey samples had a smaller ratio of honeydew elements to pollen grain content (mean HDE/Pn = 0.12), and for the majority of samples (93%) the ratio HDE/Pn was very low (< 0.3), suggesting that this traditional ratio value should not be considered as an indicator of honeydew honeys. The qualitative analysis of the samples showed the presence of 73 taxa belonging to 38 families. Pollen grains of Quercus f., Rubus ulmifloius f., Campanula erinus gr., Capsella f., Cytisus scoparius f., Echium plantagineum gr., Cistus ladanifer f. or Castanea sativa, and, to a lesser extent, those of Crepis f.,Eucalyptus f., Senecio f., Halimium f., Erica australis, Plantago f., Salix triandra gr. and Centaurea calcitrapa gr. are representative of Spanish oak honeydew honeys.

Effect of Brassica Biofumigant Amendments on Different Stages of the Life Cycle of Phytophthora cinnamomi

AbstractThe oomycete plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi causes a highly destructive root rot that affects numerous hosts. Integrated management strategies are needed to control P. cinnamomi in seminatural oak rangelands. We tested how biofumigation affects crucial stages of the pathogen's life cycle in vitro, in infested soils under laboratory conditions and in planta. Different genotypes of three potential biofumigant plant species (Brassica carinata, Brassica juncea, Brassica napus) were collected at different phenological stages, analysed for their glucosinolate contents, and subsequently tested. The most effective genotypes against mycelial growth and sporangial production were further tested on the viability of chlamydospores in artificially infested natural soils and in planta on Lupinus luteus, a host highly susceptible to P.cinnamomi. Brassica carinata and B. juncea genotypes inhibited mycelial growth, decreased sporangial production, and effectively inhibited the viability of chlamydospores in soil, but only B. carinata decreased disease symptoms in plants. Effective genotypes of Brassica had high levels of the glucosinolate sinigrin. Biofumigation with Brassica plants rich in sinigrin has potential to be a suitable tool for control of oak root disease caused by P. cinnamomi in Spanish oak rangeland ecosystems.

Prior Prevalence of Shortleaf Pine-Oak-Hickory Woodlands in the Tallahassee Red Hills

ABSTRACT Shortleaf pine-oak-hickory woodlands provided the principal vegetation cover in the Tallahassee Red Hills prior to land clearing for plantation agriculture in the 19th century. Ample historical documentation and extant remnants of that community, including old-growth, support this conclusion. This woodland was maintained by surface fires and consisted principally of open stands of shortleaf pine, post oak, Spanish oak, black oak, mockernut hickory, and dogwood. The species-diverse and predominantly herbaceous ground cover was dominated by grasses, legumes, and composites. Coppice sprouting of trees and shrubs after fires was common. In the absence of fire, shortleaf pine-oak-hickory woodlands convert to oak-hickory forest with similar tree species composition and loss of herbaceous species. Within the past 130 years, nearly all stands of shortleaf pine-oak-hickory woodlands and oak-hickory forests have been extirpated or compromised beyond recognition by intrusions of offsite tree species that ar...

Phenolic compounds and sensorial characterization of wines aged with alternative to barrel products made of Spanish oak wood (Quercus pyrenaica Willd.)

Wood of Quercus pyrenaica has suitable properties for the wine ageing process. However, the forest available for the barrel making from this particular type of tree is very limited. Nevertheless, it is highly advisable to use this kind of wood in order to manufacture alternative oak products. This study presents the results of ageing the same red wine using different pieces of wood (chips and staves) of Spanish oak (Q. pyrenaica), American oak (Quercus alba) and French oak (Quercus petraea) in conjunction with small, controlled amounts of oxygen. In addition, the phenolic parameters, colour and sensory analysis point out that wines aged with Q. pyrenaica pieces have similar enological characteristics to those aged with American or French oak pieces of wood (chips and staves). Furthermore, the total oxygen consumed and its relation with sensory properties also has been studied in this article in order to know how the oxygen behaves in these processes. Besides, it is going to put forward the fact that chips and staves from Q. pyrenaica oak are suitable for the ageing of red wines and better considered than American or French ones, showing higher aromatic intensity, complexity, woody, balsamic and cocoa. Finally, the tasters valued highly the wines with staves, pointing out its flavour and roundness in mouth.

Recent literature on lichens—221

Agnello, G., M. Catinon, S. Ayrault, J. Asta, M. Tissut & P. Ravanel. 2010. A comparative study of atmospheric deposits and lichen populations in a protected alpine area in the Grenoble region (France). International Journal of Environment and Health 4(2–3): 235–249. [‘‘Concurrently, the lichen flora of Seiglieres was studied from 1970 to 2007, showing a high biodiversity as well as important changes occurring in its composition, with a marked increase in the nitrophilous species, possibly due to higher amounts of NOx, P, Mg and S wafted over in the atmosphere.’’] Alstrup, V., A. Aptroot, P. K. Divakar, S. LaGreca & L. Tibell. 2010. Lichens from Tanzania and Kenya III. Macrolichens and calicioid lichens. Cryptogamie, Mycologie 31(3): 333–351. [Report of 156 species, including ‘‘ ... 28 species are new for Tanzania and 2 for Kenya. New for Africa are Hypotrachyna novella, H. physcioides, Melanelia panniformis, Physcidia squamulosa, and Xanthoparmelia microspora.’’] Aragon, G., R. Lopez & I. Martinez. 2010. Effects of Mediterranean dehesa management on epiphytic lichens. Science of the Total Environment 409(1): 116–122. [Study of Spanish holm oak in open woodlands (dehesas) in Spain. ‘‘Total species richness and cover exhibited considerable variation among management regimes. Both parameters tended to decrease with the intensity of management, abandoned dehesas maintaining a higher number of species than more intensively managed habitats. Lichen composition also significantly differed among the four regimes. Nitrophytic species were clearly associated with more intensive management regimes (farming or livestock management), whereas non-nitrophytic species favored abandoned dehesas.’’] Archer, A. W. 2010. The Rt. Rev. James Hannington, D. D., F. L S., F. R. G. S., collector, missionary and martyr 1847– 1885. British Lichen Society Bulletin 107: 18–19. [Notes on specimens at Kew from East Africa including a list of 11 new taxa described by Muller based on his collections.] Backorova, M., M. Backor, J. Mikes, R. Jendželovský & P. Fedorocko. 2011. Variable responses of different human cancer cells to the lichen compounds parietin, atranorin, usnic acid and gyrophoric acid. Toxicology in Vitro 25(1): 37–44. [Tests on nine human cancer cell lines. ‘‘However, in comparison with parietin and gyrophoric acid, the suppression of viability and cell proliferation by usnic acid or atranorin was found to be more efficient at equitoxic doses and correlated more strongly with an increased number of floating cells or a higher apoptotic index. This study has confirmed a differential sensitivity of cancer cell lines to lichen secondary metabolites.’’] Bajpai, R., S. Nayaka & D. K. Upreti. 2010. Calcium accumulation in lichens of Bhimbetka rock shelter — World Heritage Zone, India. British Lichen Society Bulletin 107: 71–76. [Study of weathering and biodeterioration by several lichen species at this sandstone site.] ———, D. K. Upreti, S. K. Dwivedi & S. Nayaka. 2009. Lichen as quantitative biomonitors of atmospheric heavy metals deposition in Central India. Journal of 1 Author e-mail: regan@unomaha.edu The cumulative database for this series is available in searchable form on the World Wide Web at http:// www.nhm.uio.no/botanisk/bot-mus/lav/sok_rll.htm. I owe special thanks to Bill Buck for providing copies of papers by other authors, which were otherwise unavailable to me, and to the cooperating authors who send reprints or electronic versions of their works to me for inclusion in this series. I have now transferred the Recent Literature on Lichens series into the capable hands of my colleague Brendan Hodkinson (brendan.hodkinson@duke.edu). Please be sure to place him on your mailing list for all future lichen publications. Many thanks. DOI: 10.1639/0007-2745-114.2.408

Dynamic height growth model for Spanish and Tunisian cork oak (Quercus suber L.) forests

Seven simple and advanced dynamic polymorphic functions were considered to develop a dominant height growth model for Spanish and Tunisian cork oak forests. Data from 115 stem analyses performed in two regions in each country were used to fit the equations. Parameter estimates were obtained using the Dummy variable method. Both numerical, graphical and biological consistency were used to compare alternative models. The dynamic equation finally selected was derived from the Hossfeld model by considering the shape parameter to be related to site productivity. An analysis of the dominant height growth patterns between the two countries indicated that the same dominant height growth model was valid for both countries. This dominant height growth model allows estimation of dominant height with a level of reliability of at least 83% from an age of 15 years for a prediction interval of less than 40 years.

Volatile Composition of Toasted Oak Chips and Staves and of Red Wine Aged with Them

The evolution of the wood-released aromatic composition of a Spanish wine artificially aged with chips and staves of Spanish oak (<i>Quercus pyrenaica</i>), French oak (<i>Quercus petraea</i>), and American oak (<i>Quercus alba</i>) was studied by GC–MS. The volatile composition of the oak wood was also studied. The wines aged with Spanish <i>Q. pyrenaica</i> oak evolved similar to those with French and American oak, with slight differences in their oak-derived characteristics. The size of the wood pieces appeared to influence the volatile composition of the wines more than the oak species. Nevertheless, each type of wood and piece size showed particular extraction kinetics. Wines aged with chips become stable after 70 days of contact with the wood, showing standardization after longer times. The wines aged with staves evolved during the entire contact length and in the bottle. This evolution occurred slowly, probably because of the slowness of wine penetration into the wood, the concentration gradient between wine and wood, and the important contribution of the compounds that toasted staves can provide. In general, the differences in oak-related volatile compounds among wines were those expected, taking into account the volatile composition of the woods used to age wine, and they confirm the importance of analyzing the volatile composition of oak wood pieces before contact with wine. The wine treated with Spanish oak had more <i>cis</i>-β-methyl-γ-octalactone and eugenol than the same wine treated with French and American oak, especially when staves were used.