Spanish Navy Research Articles

Pharmacopea de la Armada (1760), un libro singular para uso de los sanitarios navales del siglo XVIII

Pharmacopeia Navy work of Leandro de Vega, published in 1760 for use by physicians and surgeons of ships and hospitals in the Spanish Navy during the eighteenth century, is considered the first Spanish naval pharmacopoeia. The author defines a «catalog of drugs belonging to medical diseases» definitely a gazetteer of formulas for the preparation of medicines more useful for navigators of the time, both internal and external use. In this article is discussed at length this work, recognized its importance as a primary source, placing it in its historical context, detailing the content of the treaties and giving biographical note of the author and reporting of professional position and mission of its recipients.

REDISCOVERING AMERICA: POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SPANISH COLONIES ACCORDING TO THE EXPLORERS JUAN-ULLOA, MALASPINA AND HUMBOLDT

ABSTRACTTwo scientists and sailors from the Spanish Navy, Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, the Italian sailor and explorer Alessandro Malaspina, and the German sage Alexander von Humboldt were the main actors in three great voyages to Spanish America between the second-third of the 18thcentury and the beginning of the 19thcentury. This enabled them to provide three first hand«photographs»of the state of the Spanish empire in America at three different moments in time: approximately before, during and after the implementation of colonial reforms designed in the reigns of Ferdinand VI and Charles III. This work aims, in the first place, to compare the socio-economic views of Spanish America deriving from the three expeditions, highlighting similarities and differences. Second, this work aims to connect the analysis of the weaknesses of the politico-institutional organisation of Spanish colonies, which the four travellers did at first hand, with the present debate on the role of colonial institutions in long-term economic development.

Visit to Málaga by Pedro Pacheco, Felipe IV’s military commissioner

In the J 7th century the pressure of the new North European powers impelled sorne changes in the Hispanic defensive system and led the traditional danger from the Moslem Mediterranean Sea to the background. In 1625 the Spanish coast was hardly defended faced with a possible English attack. The Spanish Navy was at that moment inAmerica fighting to expel the natives of Holland from Brazil. For this reason Felipe IV sent his State and War counsellors to the most strategic points in the coast. Pedro Pacheco, who was also the Spanish Cavalry and Infantry Main Administrative Officer, was the person responsible for the organisation of the fortifications in Malaga, where he stayed during severa! months.

Crops and weeds from the Estany de Montcortès catchment, central Pyrenees, during the last millennium: a comparison of palynological and historical records

We use palynological and historical records to reconstruct the evolution of agricultural practices and their consequences on landscape development in a mid-elevation Pyrenean small lake catchment during the last millennium. A total of ten cultivated plants and eight weed taxa were recognised and their changes in time recorded in detail. Two main phases of agricultural development were identified, A1 (9th–14th centuries ad) and A2 (16th–19th centuries ad). A1 coincided with the medieval climate anomaly and began after a widespread loss of woodland by fire, as manifested in a decline of arboreal pollen from ~60 to ~30 %, which affected mainly the pine woods (~40 to ~10 %). This phase was characterised by cultivation of the cereals Secale and Triticum/Avena, with Plantago as the main weed, alternating with pastures dominated by Artemisia, in a ca. 60 year land-use rotation scheme. A1 also coincided with a feudal socio-economic system that replaced the shifting cultivation practices of the earlier inhabitants with intensive agriculture. This type of land use was interrupted by the onset of the Little Ice Age, coinciding with a great social crisis with wars and plagues, leading to the depopulation of the zone and the recovery of woodlands. The onset of A2 coincided with the Spanish monarchy of the modern age and was characterised by Cannabis cultivation, which attained a maximum in the post-modern age, at the transition between feudalism and capitalism. Hemp was mainly used to supply fibre to the Spanish navy and the cultivation of this plant was mandatory until the disestablishment of this navy in ad 1834. After this date, a second socio-economic crisis took place as a consequence of massive emigration to large cities, promoted by the growing industrialisation. The combination of fossil and historical evidence significantly improves palaeoecological reconstructions in areas under heavy human impact, which is useful to enhance historical soundness, to understand how modern landscapes have been shaped and also to disentangle natural causes of ecological change from human ones.

A new proposal to improve the description of astronomical resources

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to show that some important astronomical information is still not taken into account in the documental description of historical star catalogues. Design/methodology/approach – A sample of 28 historical star catalogues (eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries) from the Royal Institute and Observatory of the Spanish Navy was selected in order to analyse their structure and to identify information patterns. Findings – The analysis shows that there are a number of technical parameters which are not present in the cataloguing standards and which should be taken into account in the bibliographic descriptions of these specialised documents since they are of great interest to astronomers and astrophysicists. On the other hand, star catalogues provide some cartographic information which can be described by these standards but whose corresponding fields are not widely used by cataloguers. Originality/value – A proposal of new technical parameters is given in order to try to improve the bibliographic records of these astronomical resources. Some directions are also given in order to identify the sections of the catalogues where these parameters may be found, making the task of locating them easier.

Spanish Naval Strategy and the United States, 1763–1819

This article examines the naval strategies conceived by the Spanish government to deal with Anglo-American expansion in North America. The political, social and diplomatic aspects of this process have been thoroughly approached by historiography. However, its impact on Spanish naval policy has received little attention. After the Louisiana purchase, the Spanish navy made a plan for a full-scale war against the United States, involving battlefleet action, blockade, amphibious operations and guerre de course. The War of the Third Coalition prevented it from taking place, and the Napoleonic invasion of 1808 practically obliterated the Spanish Navy. After the restoration of the Spanish Monarchy there were renewed tensions with the United States, and in 1816 the project was redrawn, albeit on a more modest scale. This article examines the contents of the war plans in detail, in order to understand the objectives of Spanish grand strategy and the manner in which naval forces were to be employed. Also, it aims at understanding the intellectual origins of the ideas expressed by the authors of these plans. Finally, it aims to underline the consequences that the failure to implement an effective diplomatic, military and naval strategy had for Spain's position in North America.

Letter

 OHQ vol. 116, no. 3 LETTER To the Editor: As a longtime member of the Oregon Historical Society (OHS), I have read many scholarly accounts about how Oregon got its name. I wish to share a personal story on this subject with my fellow OHS members, before it escapes my 85-year-old memory. As a young naval officer in 1953,I was a guest at lunch withAdmiral Bobadilla,Spanish Navy, and his family in Barcelona,Spain.When I told the admiral that I was from Oregon,he became quite animated, got to his feet, and tried to tell me in Spanish that the name Oregon came from the Spanish expression for ‘natives with large ears.’ He may have actually grabbed my ear, but I’m not sure about that today. My Spanish at the time was non-existent, and the admiral had little English, but one of his daughters was conversant in English. I regret not asking the admiral how he came by this information. My guess is that the story had been passed down through his Bobadilla family. A Francisco de Bobadilla succeeded Columbus in the early 1500s as governor in Spain’s new territories in America, and I suspect that Bobadilla ancestors may have sailed with the early Spanish explorers on the West Coast of America. In checking Google translate, I find‘natives with large ears’ translates to nativos con orejas grandes. I have no language or linguistic skills to explore this further.Admiral Bobadilla may have put a Catalan“spin”on his pronunciation of the word Oregon. In an early edition of Oregon Geographic Names, Lewis A. McArthur reports discussing large ears with a Native American, and they concluded that Native Americans had the same ears as everybody else. With all due respect to both, I believe that they missed the point. I think that there were some Native tribes between northern California and Nootka Sound, who adorned their ears with heavy ornaments of bone, wood or stone, which would make for “large ears”? Perhaps some current researcher of journals and logbooks from the early Spanish explorers may find mention of a Bobadilla or natives wearing ornaments in their ears? Larry G. Valade Fredericksburg, Virginia Edwin Battistella discusses the origins of Oregon’s name — including this possible interpretation — in “Oregon, the name,” in The Oregon Encyclopedia. Readers can access this article by scanning the QR code to the left or by visiting the website: http://oregonencyclopedia. org/articles/oregon_the_name. ...

Algunos aspectos jurídico-constitucionales con relación al abordaje de buque pirata en alta mar: función de policía de la armada, abordaje y registro de la nave y pautas en orden a la detención de sospechosos

El fortalecimiento de vías legales para asegurar el respeto de los derechos humanos de los prisioneros o detenidos por parte de los miembros de las Fuerzas Armadas en operaciones en el exterior es una cuestión de indudable relevancia constitucional. Ese interés ha tomado más importancia en España a raíz de la cada vez mayor implicación y peligrosidad de las misiones que desarrolla el Ejército en el extranjero, como por ejemplo, Irak, Afganistán o la Operación Atalanta. El presente trabajo tiene por objeto hacer un análisis aproximativo de en qué medida puede actuar la Armada española, en orden a la detención de piratas en alta mar, tratando de preservar los derechos humanos de los detenidos y, más allá, en pro de la garantía, en la medida de lo posible, de los derechos fundamentales contenidos en la Constitución de 1978

Monitoring the evolution of Deception Island volcano from magnetic anomaly data (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica)

Deception Island is a young and active volcano located in the south-western part of Bransfield back-arc basin. During the last twenty years the Royal Observatory of the Spanish Navy has carried out geophysical surveys in the area. In addition, an unmanned aerial vehicle flight was conducted in 2011 at 800m height on the northern half of Deception Island. Analysing and comparing magnetic grids obtained in different periods and tie point readings allow us to detect temporal changes and isolate signals of volcanic origin. Magnetic survey cruises performed in Deception Island's inner bay (1988, 1999 and 2008), and the study of its outer area's magnetic anomaly changes, point to a period of high variations concentrated between December 1989 and December 1999 that may be related to the two main recent periods of seismic activity (1992 and January 1999). From December 1999 to December 2008, there were no significant changes in seismic activity; nevertheless, our data show some magnetic alterations, which might signal the slow progress of a volcanic environment towards equilibrium. Interpreting these magnetic changes called for the construction of several forward models. Additionally, we put forth this kind of study as a suitable, economical and easy method for monitoring an active volcanic system whenever it is possible to measure the magnetic field with accurate positioning, and if the external field components are removed correctly.

Experience on radar cross section reduction of a warship

ABSTRACTThe aim of this work is to present a real experience on radar cross section (RCS) reduction using a radar absorbent material (RAM) made of microwire metallic fibers on a patrol ship of the Spanish Navy. The effectiveness of this RAM has been demonstrated, providing a drastic reduction in the number of significant scatterers or hot spots, together with a significant reduction (between 10 and 15 dB) in the global RCS pattern. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microwave Opt Technol Lett 56:2270–2273, 2014

Signs of Power in Habsburg Spain and the New World

This is a fascinating collection of essays by different authors who, by means of careful examinations of texts, shed light on the nature, status, and practice of power in sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century Spain. Two pieces, one dealing with Juan de Palafox y Mendoza and, especially, one focused on the writings of Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, address Spain's relationships to the territories it had conquered in the New World. Three of the contributions (by Anne J. Cruz, Ignacio López Alemany, and Jason McCloskey, respectively) were first presented as lectures at a 2009 symposium organized in connection with the exhibition Sacred Spain: Art and Belief in the Spanish World at the Indianapolis Museum of Art, curated by Ronda Kasl. I mention the circumstance of this important exhibition as background and source because a striking characteristic of this compilation is that many of its essays make use of visual materials, especially paintings, and, in some cases, this treatment is quite extensive. The title itself, by emphasizing signs, gives notice of the book's participation in what is often now called the visual turn in the humanities. None of the authors are art historians; rather, they are linguists (Spanish and Portuguese) versed in literature and its relation to multiple aspects of human culture. The other key word in the title is “power,” the basic concern of the essays, which are divided into two parts: “Myths of Power” and “Challenges for Power.” The unsigned preface (authored, I suppose, by the volume's two editors, Jason McCloskey and Ignacio López Alemany) offers a good introduction to the contents of the book and the problems it intends to examine.The essays deal mostly with the reigns of Philip II and Philip III. The literary references brought into the analyses include classical authors, of course, as well as Miguel de Cervantes, Luis de Góngora, and Félix Lope de Vega, among others. In part 1, for example, Cervantes's Sansón Carrasco and Don Quixote are the focus of Frederick A. de Armas's essay on myths of power, with suggestive references to sculpture gardens, specifically the one at Bomarzo. In part 2, E. C. Graf examines Cervantes's La Numancia alongside El Greco's paintings for El Escorial, providing a cogent explanation for Philip II's reluctance to further patronize the painter. In connection to this interface between texts and paintings, Titian is, interestingly, the artist most mentioned in the collection, since several of the essays are concerned with the details of the well-known relationship between the Venetian painter and both Charles V and, especially, Philip II. In particular, Anne J. Cruz and Lucia Binotti deal sensitively with Titian's erotic paintings for Philip II, comparing them to classical and contemporary literature and placing them in the context of not only Philip's very personal concerns but also his dynastic and political ones. Titian is also central in McCloskey's essay, the last of part 2, which compares Lope de Vega's La Dragontea to the painter's Religion Succored by Spain. The canvas, to my mind, continues to be a puzzling work, certainly illuminated by literary comparisons but still insufficiently studied in terms of its visual lineage. Other painters mentioned are Giovanni Battista Perolli and Cesare de Bellis (not Cesare Arbasia, as he is identified in the text), who depicted the mythological, classical, and allegorical themes of the frescos at the El Viso estate of Álvaro de Bazán, admiral of the Spanish navy. López Alemany introduces these artists in his discussion of the concepts of power and honor.Other objects are brought to bear on the topic of “challenges for power,” the focus of part 2. Elvira Vilches focuses on coinage during the reign of Philip III in her discussion of trust in power and its potential instability. The ambivalent, personal use of heraldic imagery by Juan de Palafox y Mendoza is the topic of John Slater's essay. Ana María G. Laguna studies another case of contesting power, the openly critical writings of Antonio Pérez, former personal secretary of Philip II turned “traitor.” Finally, José A. Cárdenas Bunsen examines Inca Garcilaso's reasoning about legitimate power and the problems of just war in his Royal Commentaries. In conclusion, the essays in this collection succeed in engaging the reader through their high level of scholarship on varied topics, all focused on the exercise and reception of Spanish Hapsburg power.

Modeling extreme wave heights from laboratory experiments with the nonlinear Schrödinger equation

Abstract. Spatial variation of nonlinear wave groups with different initial envelope shapes is theoretically studied first, confirming that the simplest nonlinear theoretical model is capable of describing the evolution of propagating wave packets in deep water. Moreover, three groups of laboratory experiments run in the wave basin of CEHIPAR (Canal de Experiencias Hidrodinámicas de El Pardo, known also as El Pardo Model Basin) was founded in 1928 by the Spanish Navy. are systematically compared with the numerical simulations of the nonlinear Schrödinger equation. Although a little overestimation is detected, especially in the set of experiments characterized by higher initial wave steepness, the numerical simulation still displays a high degree of agreement with the laboratory experiments. Therefore, the nonlinear Schrödinger equation catches the essential characteristics of the extreme waves and provides an important physical insight into their generation. The modulation instability, resulting from the quasi-resonant four-wave interaction in a unidirectional sea state, can be indicated by the coefficient of kurtosis, which shows an appreciable correlation with the extreme wave height and hence is used in the modified Edgeworth–Rayleigh distribution. Finally, some statistical properties on the maximum wave heights in different sea states have been related with the initial Benjamin–Feir index.

Reconstructing past solar activity using meridian solar observations: The case of the Royal Observatory of the Spanish Navy (1833–1840)

Solar meridian observations have been used to evaluate the solar activity of the past. Some important examples are the solar meridian observations made at the Basilica of San Petronio in Bologna by several astronomers and the observations made by Hevelius published in his book Machina Coelestis. However, we do not know whether these observations, which were not aimed to estimate the solar activity, are reliable for evaluating solar activity. In this paper, we present the marginal notes about sunspots that are included in the manuscripts of the meridian solar observations made at the Royal Observatory of the Spanish Navy during the period 1833–1840. We compare these observations with other solar activity indices such as sunspot area and number. Our conclusion is that solar meridian observations should be used with extreme caution to evaluate past solar activity.

Prediction of human adaptation and performance in underwater environments.

Environmental stressors require the professional diver to undergo a complex process of psychophysiological adaptation in order to overcome the demands of an extreme environment and carry out effective and efficient work under water. The influence of cognitive and personality traits in predicting underwater performance and adaptation has been a common concern for diving psychology, and definitive conclusions have not been reached. In this ex post facto study, psychological and academic data were analyzed from a large sample of personnel participating in scuba diving courses carried out in the Spanish Navy Diving Center. In order to verify the relevance of individual differences in adaptation to a hostile environment, we evaluated the predictive validity of general mental ability and personality traits with regression techniques. The data indicated the existence of psychological variables that can predict the performance ( R² = .30, p <.001) and adaptation ( R²(N) = .51, p <.001) of divers in underwater environment. These findings support the hypothesis that individual differences are related to the probability of successful adaptation and effective performance in professional diving. These results also verify that dispositional traits play a decisive role in diving training and are significant factors in divers' psychological fitness.

Una experiencia reciente en el Pacífico: La expedición Malaspina 2010

This article offers a general vision of the Malaspina 2010 circumnavigation of the globe, an interdisciplinary research project directed by the Spanish National Research Council, whose main goals are to evaluate the impact of global change on the ocean and to explore its biodiversity. The project was undertaken on two oceanographic research vessels, the Hesperides, belonging to the Spanish Navy, and the Sarmiento de Gamboa, operated by the CSIC, from 15 December 2010 until 14 July 2011. Finally, the significance of the Malaspina 2010 project as an example for an expedition undertaken in modern times will be discussed in the context of the interest that such a scientific enterprise raises for global society.

El Almirantazgo español de 1807: la última reforma de Manuel Godoy

At the end of the 18 th century the Spanish Navy was in decline. Manuel Godoy was commissioned by the King to reverse the situation. Although there were previous plans, it was not until the Spanish-French defeat at Trafalgar in 1805 when the so-called «Prince of Peace» decided to establish an institution that was being considered as the solution to the serious problems affecting the Navy. The establishment of Admiralty was welcomed by both the Navy and the people in favor of Godoy. Just over one year later, many of those who flattered Godoy in 1807 vilified him angrily on March 1808.

Glory from space

WeatherVolume 67, Issue 2 p. 41-41 Research Article Glory from space Kees Floor, Corresponding Author Kees Floor [email protected] De Bilt, The NetherlandsDe Bilt, The NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this author Kees Floor, Corresponding Author Kees Floor [email protected] De Bilt, The NetherlandsDe Bilt, The NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this author First published: 25 January 2012 https://doi.org/10.1002/wea.868Citations: 2Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article.Citing Literature Volume67, Issue2February 2012Pages 41-41 RelatedInformation

Insensitive Environment Calibration Procedure for an Instrumental Radar

In this paper, we present a calibration procedure for radar cross section (RCS) measurement systems that is insensitive to environmental perturbations. This procedure has been used in several measurement campaigns to calibrate the measurement system of the Spanish Navy called LIBRA. The proposed method not only allows us to discard environment corrupted measurements but also to make use of them thanks to the Doppler discrimination. A bank of Doppler filters, together with the dynamic control of the calibration target, allow us to turn our traditional calibration procedure into a free-space calibration method, avoiding the influence of any possible multipath component that could be present in the time of calibration. The paper contains a detailed description of the proposed procedure. Also, some application examples that confirm the usefulness and accuracy of this technique are presented.

The Treasure of the San José: Death at Sea in the War of the Spanish Succession

On the fateful night of June 8, 1708, a mighty Spanish galleon sunk beneath the sea after a clash with superior British forces near the entrance to the port of Cartagena; but her saga did not end there. The San José, because of the stories which swirled after its demise, became a matter of historical legend and mystery. Carla Rahn Phillips’s newest historical offering is not just the history of a ship but rather an account of the waning years (and consequences) of Spanish Habsburg rule and the transition to the Spanish Bourbons. In particular, it deals with the era of the War of the Spanish Succession and successfully adds insights into its context in terms of a world conflict.We find in the lucid prose of this book that by the late seventeenth century the Spanish monarchy was terribly in debt and hence very dependent on the treasure emanating from its New World realms. With regard to this discussion there is little that is new, but in reference to the San José and its sister ship (San Joaquín) we learn that the relationship between money and politics was very much in the forefront. Spanish ship construction specifications were expressed principally in codos (roughly 22 inches) in each measured dimension, while the actual shipbuilders were paid in terms of toneladas (tonnage; a tonelada was equal to 1.42 cubic meters of carrying capacity). It is therefore not surprising that Spanish galleons (warships built to accompany merchant ships and to carry treasure for the crown) grew in size from between 500 and 700 toneladas in 1666 to 800 toneladas by 1679, as recommended by crown edicts or publications. Both the San José and San Joaquín were projected in their initial designs to be around 1,200 toneladas each; although neither reached such a size both for reasons of economy and, more importantly, stability. At every step in the construction of both ships inspections took place, and when the workmanship was deemed satisfactory further funds were forwarded to the shipbuilders. This reflects the care with which such vessels were built at the behest of the Spanish Navy. In the end the San Joaquín (1,026 toneladas) was slightly larger than the San José (1,009 toneladas), as delineated in the documents in the Archivo General de Indias.The man who would eventually command the ill-fated San José — Don José Fernández de Santillán (later the count of Casa Alegre) — remains a man of great controversy. According to the records uncovered by Phillips, Don José was not averse to using his noble status (plus monetary payments to the Spanish Crown) to obtain important posts within the Spanish Navy and elsewhere within Spain’s extensive bureaucratic state. When he eventually became the captain-general of the Tierra Firme fleet he had very little service to commend him for such a high post. Hence this book shows the level of corruption involving the acquisition of high government positions during the Habsburg era, as demonstrated many years ago by John Lynch and others. With this work we find that this corruption persisted with the onset of the supposed more efficient governance of the Spanish Bourbons. It is clear that money talks, no matter what the historical era. Yet the Count of Casa Alegre’s inexperience may explain in part the eventual demise of the San José. After its tragic sinking in June 1708 along with its captain and the majority of its crew, the crown took testimony concerning the events leading up to its loss. According to Don Francisco Medina, who participated in a junta presided over by Casa Alegre (during the final days of the Portobelo fair), the captain-general was warned that a superior force of British warships had been sighted and appeared to be awaiting to intercept any fleet that might depart Portobelo destined for Cartagena. Medina went on to say that he continued to object to the captain-general’s decision to set sail for Cartagena. Such testimony, which was substantiated by others, suggests as the author concludes that it was these particular decisions which doomed the San José.This is a well-written and well-researched book which can be effectively read by both scholar and novice. It reads somewhat like a detective novel that remains a delight to read over and over again. Certainly the quest to find the wreck of the San José will continue, perhaps because of Phillips’s estimation that the ship had somewhere around ten million pesos aboard when it sank. Both the Spanish and Colombian governments certainly will be in the wings to claim such a treasure if it is ever found.

Effects of hyperoxia on biomarkers of oxidative stress in closed-circuit oxygen military divers

Oxygen toxicity is a problem in diving which can have fatal consequences in the water. When divers use closed-circuit oxygen rebreathing apparatus they are taking only oxygen 100% and this hyperoxic exposure increases the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in biological tissues. The objective of the present study is to evaluate the effects of hyperoxia on biomarkers of oxidative stress in closed-circuit oxygen military divers. Fifteen professional divers of Spanish Navy Diving Centre participated in a training program which consisted of one-hour immersion at seven metres of depth breathing oxygen 100% with closed-circuit oxygen rebreathing apparatus. The training went on two or three times per week for the first six weeks and once a week for the last six weeks. Serum total antioxidant status (TAS), levels of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), nitrates (NO3(-)) and urinary concentrations of 15-isoprostane F2t were measured. The results show that TAS decreased significantly after 6 weeks (mean 1.38 versus 1.23 mmol/l), with a slight increase at the end (mean 1.31 mmol/l). GPx and F2-isoprostanes were significantly lower after 6 and 12 weeks and NO3(-) was significantly lower after 6 weeks and remained unchanged until the end. In summary, professional divers who use closed-circuit apparatus and therefore breathe oxygen 100%, do not suffer an important oxidative hyperoxia-induced stress, probably due an adaptive process after hyperoxia. The age and good physical form of the subjects studied could probably enhance the adaptive process to hyperoxia.