Shuttle Program Research Articles

Like a Phoenix from the Ashes: Management Control and Organizational Resilience During NASA's Apollo and Space Shuttle Programs

This study draws on archival sources to investigate the ways in which management control may contribute to and support organizational resilience by analyzing crises from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) Apollo (1961–1972) and Space Shuttle (1972–2011) programs. Both programs suffered significant events with tragic consequences. A fire killed three astronauts during a launch rehearsal test of Apollo 1. During the Space Shuttle program, the Challenger broke apart shortly after launch, and the Columbia disintegrated upon re‐entering Earth's atmosphere; both tragedies resulted in the death of all seven crew members. NASA's recovery from the three disasters and subsequent achievements exemplifies organizational resilience. This study analyzes and discusses how management control contributed to such efforts, which enabled the space programs to rise like a phoenix from the ashes of crises which could have very well led to the abandonment of the United States’ spacefaring endeavours.

Celebrating 30 years of access to NASA Space Life Sciences data.

NASA's space life sciences research programs established a decades-long legacy of enhancing our ability to safely explore the cosmos. From Skylab and the Space Shuttle Program to the NASA Balloon Program and the International Space Station National Lab, these programs generated priceless data that continue to paint a vibrant picture of life in space. These data are available to the scientific community in various data repositories, including the NASA Ames Life Sciences Data Archive (ALSDA) and NASA GeneLab. Here we recognize the 30-year anniversary of data access through ALSDA and the 10-year anniversary of GeneLab.

Launch Vehicle Ascent Computational Fluid Dynamics for the Space Launch System

This paper will discuss the use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for the Space Launch System (SLS) program to model the ascent phase of flight. The ascent phase begins shortly after the vehicle clears the launch tower and extends to the first staging event. To model SLS’s ascent, over 1000 numerical solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations were solved, and this analysis has been repeated for five different SLS configurations. To manage this demanding ascent CFD task, the SLS program has developed the Computational Aerosciences Productivity & Execution software. The paper also discusses some of the ways that CFD and high-end computing have advanced in the last decade and offers some comparisons to CFD used in the Space Shuttle Program.

A 6-Week Badminton-Based Movement Intervention Enhances Fundamental Movement Skills and Physical Fitness in Saudi Boys and Girls.

This study examined the short (pre-post) and longer-term (post to 10 weeks post) effects of the Badminton World Federation (BWF) Shuttle Time program on fundamental movement skills (FMS) and physical fitness in Saudi boys and girls. Seventy-six children aged 9-11 years (44 boys, 32 girls; mean ± SD = 10.2 ± 0.9 years) undertook twice weekly Shuttle Time sessions for 6 weeks. Pre, post, and 10 weeks post, FMS was measured using the test of gross motor development 3 and physical fitness was measured via 10 m sprint speed, standing long jump, seated medicine ball throw, and a 6 min walk test (6MWT). There were significant improvements in FMS from pre to post (p = 0.0001) and post to 10-weeks post (p = 0.0001) for both boys and girls. Girls demonstrated a significantly greater magnitude of change in FMS. For 10 m sprint time, seated medicine ball throw, standing long jump, and 6MWT performance, both boys and girls significantly improved from pre-10 weeks post (all p = 0.001). The magnitude of change was greater pre to 10-weeks post for girls for the seated medicine ball throw, but was greater for boys for the standing long jump and 6MWT. In terms of practical applications, the BWF Shuttle Time program is feasible for administration in the Saudi context and is beneficial in developing FMS and fitness for Saudi children aged 8-12 years.

Lock the Doors: The Myocarditis Disaster and a call for the broad examination of the CDC and FDA

“Lock the doors.” uttered by LeRoy Cain, the flight director of STS-107, meant the complete loss of Space Shuttle Columbia. Locking the doors initiated the protocol to preserve data and logs for the impending investigation. Some hard lessons were learned from the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster 17 years earlier, one of which was that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) should not be put in a position to investigate itself. The interagency Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) was formed to learn what we could from the fate of Columbia. Had NASA been the investigating agency, given the culture, it is possible the concluding cause would have been a random event such as bird strike after takeoff or micrometeoroid in orbit. “We are convinced that the management practices overseeing the Space Shuttle Program were as much a cause of the accident as the foam that struck the left wing.”[1] Those management practices point to lock-stepping, where dissenting opinions are discouraged or suppressed. NASA’s opinion was that foam is safe. When Bob Page, chair of NASA’s Intercenter Photo Working Group, saw foam strike the wing he raised an alarm that the heat shield may be compromised. He and two members of the Debris Assessment Team made a total of three requests to the Department of Defense (DoD) to obtain high-resolution images of Columbia’s left wing. A request that, by all accounts, the DoD was willing and able to fulfill. Those requests were subsequently canceled by the shuttle program managers. The CAIB report went on to say, “[t]he Board was also influenced by discussions with members of Congress, who suggested that this nation needed a broad examination of NASAʼs Human Space Flight Program, rather than just an investigation into what physical fault caused Columbia to break up during re-entry.” There are two vitally important lessons we have learned from NASA. The first is that a government agency should not be able to investigate itself. The second is that lock-stepping is lethal. The most advanced population health surveillance in the United States couldn’t find a single healthy child who died of COVID-19. Zero is a powerful number. Zero is also the number of vaccines that impart superior immunity over that of natural immunity. If we could choose one feature that the emergent 5th endemic cold virus could have, it would unequivocally be a minimal effect on children – safeguarding our future and allowing the progression of natural immunity. There is nothing mild about pediatric myocarditis. Even with the best medical management, 1/3rd of all patients never completely recovers, and will live with dilated cardiomyopathy. If untreated, 80% of children will develop chronic heart disease. These children are subject to a high risk of sudden death and may require an urgent heart transplant[2].

Increased Intraocular Pressure in Glaucomatous, Ocular Hypertensive, and Normotensive Space Shuttle Crew.

BACKGROUND: Glaucoma and ocular hypertension (OHT) are prevalent diseases with baseline intraocular pressure (IOP) elevations that future astronauts and spaceflight participants may suffer from. Preflight, in-flight, and postflight IOP measurements were collected aboard two U.S. Space Shuttle Program missions in normotensive control, OHT, and glaucomatous crewmembers. METHODS: Five subjects (three controls, one glaucomatous, one OHT) were studied aboard 2-wk Space Shuttle missions. Baseline IOP (triplicate; handheld tonometry) was recorded during training 12 mo preflight, in flight (114 d), and postflight (329 d). Subjective symptoms were recorded via questionnaires. Data were analyzed using a spreadsheet with two-sample t-tests. P-value < 0.05 determined significance. RESULTS: IOP increased for all in-flight vs. preflight measurements for controls (N 3, 48.9, 16.9, 5.85), OHT (N 1, 20.3), and glaucomatous (N 1, 32.2) groups. IOP eventually returned to baseline postflight [Return (R)35 d], except for the astronaut with OHT (R917). Subjective symptoms, likely multifactorial, included blurredvision, decreased visual acuity, and headaches. DISCUSSION: IOP increased during spaceflight and normalized upon return. Astronauts and commercial spaceflight participants may need screening for elevated IOP to potentially prevent sequelae related to glaucoma and OHT, the former which requires treatment in flight and the latter which may need prophylaxis. Previous studies have shown elevated IOP upon entry into microgravity with various normalization timeframes in flight and postflight. It is unclear how increased IOP relates to spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome (SANS); however, several hypotheses exist. Treatment strategies should be available for acute and chronic ocular pathology during spaceflight despite the unique challenges of eye-drop application in microgravity. Dalal SR, Ramachandran V, Khalid R, Manuel FK, Knowles JR, Jones JA. Increased intraocular pressure in glaucomatous, ocular hypertensive, and normotensive space shuttle crew. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2021; 92(9):728733.

Optimal drag-energy entry guidance via pseudospectral convex optimization

In this paper a new drag-energy scheme for atmospheric entry guidance, based on the use of pseudospectral methods and convex optimization, is proposed. One of the most successful technologies to deal with atmospheric entry is the class of drag-tracking schemes, a direct heritage of the Space Shuttle program. The method that we propose exploits the drag-dynamics, and allows for an efficient automatic design of an optimal entry profile satisfying all the longitudinal constraints acting on the vehicle. A new representation of the entry-guidance problem, able to loss-less convexify the formulation, is provided. Numerical simulations confirm the validity of the proposed scheme as tool for further improving the autonomy of modern entry guidance systems, with a mean final range-to-go error at the end of entry phase smaller than 2 km, and the capability to re-compute a complete constrained trajectory to meet the mission requirements.

Dose response effects of the BWF Shuttle Time Programme on children’s actual and perceived fundamental movement skill competence

This study examined dose-response effects of the Badminton World Federation (BWF) Shuttle Time programme on fundamental movement skills (FMS) and perceived FMS competence in 6–9-year olds. Children (n = 158, 83 boys, 75 girls, Mean ± SD age = 7.6 ± .97) were randomly allocated into three conditions: Shuttle Time 2Xweek; Shuttle Time 1Xweek; 3) control (CON) group. The intervention groups undertook the BWF Shuttle Time programme over a 10-week period in place of both or one of their statutory Physical Education lessons. FMS was assessed from the Test of Gross Motor Development 2. Perceived competence was assessed via the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence. Assessments were undertaken pre, post and 10 weeks post intervention. For FMS, a significant time X group interaction (P = .001) was evident. There was no significant difference in FMS between groups at pre (P &gt; .05). Post intervention there were significant differences in FMS between 2X week and 1XWeek (P = .007), 2Xweek and control (P = .0001) and 1X Week and control (P = .007). From post to 10-weeks post there were significant improvements in FMS (P = .001) for the 2X week group. A significant time X group interaction (P = .0001) also indicated that perceived competence increased significantly pre to post for 1Xweek and 2Xweek groups, but not CON groups and was maintained at 10 weeks post (all P = .001).

Propellant Off-Gassing and Implications for Triage and Rescue.

INTRODUCTION: Hypergolic propellants can be released in large amounts during space launch contingencies. Whether propellant-contaminated suit fabric poses a significant risk to rescue crews, due to off-gassing, has not been explored in detail. In this study, we addressed this issue experimentally, exposing space suit fabric to propellants (dinitrogen tetroxide [N₂O₄] and monomethyl hydrazine [MMH]).METHODS: The NASA Space Shuttle Program Advanced Crew Escape System II (ACES II) is similar to the NASA Orion Crew Survival System (OCSS) and was utilized here. Suit fabric was placed and sealed into permeation cells. Fabric exterior surface was exposed to constant concentrated hypergolics, simulating permeation and leakage. Fabric was rinsed, and permeation and off-gassing kinetics were measured. Experimental parameters were selected, simulating suited flight crewmembers during an evacuation transport without cabin air flow.RESULTS: The fabric allows for immediate permeation of liquid or vaporized MMH and N₂O₄. NO₂ off-gassing never exceeded the AEGL-1 8-h level (acute exposure guideline level). In contrast, MMH off-gassing levels culminated in peak levels, approaching AEGL-2 10-min levels, paralleling the drying process of the fabric layers. DISCUSSION: Our findings demonstrate that MMH off-gassing is promoted by the drying of suit material in a delayed fashion, resulting in MMH concentrations having the potential for adverse health effects for flight and rescue crews. This indicates that shorter decontamination times could be implemented, provided that suit material is either kept moist to prevent off-gassing or removed prior to medical evacuation. Additional studies using OCSS or commercial crew suits might be needed in the future.Schwertz H, Roth LA, Woodard D. Propellant off-gassing and implications for triage and rescue. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2020; 91(12):956961.

Application of differential evolution algorithm in the problems of gliding descent optimization

Despite the closure of the Space Shuttle program, spaceplane remain a promising vehicle, which is being developed in many countries, such as USA, European Union and China. Interest in spaceplane is due to the possibility of their reusability and wider maneuverability in comparison with reentry capsule. However, it’s reusability is directly related to satisfying the temperature limit while descending from orbit. Also, the spaceplane has ricochets in its trajectory due to a high lift-to-drag ratio that decreases landing accuracy. The paper aim is the synthesis of an optimal control program in the problems of gliding descent to the maximizing longitudinal range and lateral range with temperature limitation and the absence of ricochets. The synthesis of the optimal trajectory can be obtained by the control channels of attack angle and bank angle. The approach is to represent the control channels of attack angle and bank angle in the form of Fourier series, and the search for the optimal solution is carried out using the differential evolution algorithm. The paper presents the results of solving problems using a different number of the Fourier series terms.

Extending Humanity’s Reach: A Public-Private Framework for Space Exploration

The Cold War initiated not only rapid weaponization campaigns within the United States and the Soviet Union, but launched a space race between the ideological opponents. The Soviet Union claimed an early victory by becoming the first nation to launch a satellite into space. Despite the United States' rough start, the country triumphed during its Apollo Program to become the leader in space. Treaties and international norms emerged throughout this time to prevent these technologically raging nations from weaponizing the expansive environment of outer space, but the resulting protections against national ownership of space limited incentives for future deep space travel. As the U.S. Space Shuttle program came to an end in 2011, the United States forfeit its capabilities to transport humans to the International Space Station. This apparent abandonment of outer space, however, began to reveal the seminal role of the commercial space industry and its revolutionary technologies. This article traces the transition from the Cold War-era space race to today’s robust public-private expansion into space. It highlights the foundational importance of international cooperation to protect the interests of private companies, and presents a model of cooperative succession between space agencies and companies to send humans to Mars.

Geopolitical Imaginaries of the Space Shuttle Mission Patches

ABSTRACT This paper engages with the (geo)political imaginaries of the Space Shuttle mission patches, through a consideration of the iconography they contain. Each Space Shuttle mission had a unique patch designed to represent the mission, which were typically worn on the arm of astronauts’ space suits. Drawing on visual methodologies and popular geopolitics, this paper critically engages with the patches’ iconography, their descriptions in official documentation, and the histories that frame their production. In doing so, this paper advances three interrelated arguments. First, that the mission patches of the Space Shuttle programme presented a uniquely American framing of outer space in their iconography and can thus be read as geopolitical texts. Second, that the iconography within the patches reflected the contemporary geopolitics of their time of production, but continued to subtly demonstrate American dominance in outer space. Finally, that the consumption of the patches in museums and through popular culture assist in the construction of American Manifest Destiny in outer space. This paper presents tangible examples of humanity’s engagement with outer space through the production of material cultures, while also pushing forward the agenda for further critical geographical engagement with outer space.

New books &amp; media

New books &amp; media

Estimating the Impact of Shuttle Launches on Regional Economic Activity

The objective of this study was to quantify the impact of public investment in space programs on the regional economic activity in the areas host to the program launch operations. I implement an econometric strategy that takes the timing of the Shuttle program retirement as a natural experiment to investigate the role of public investment in space as a driver of regional economic activity. I rely on a technique known as the synthetic control method to estimate the counterfactual outcomes for the Space Coast. Comparing the observed outcomes with the estimated counterfactual outcomes provides evidence of large spillover effects of the Shuttle program in the economy of the Space Coast. My results suggest that discontinuing the Shuttle program made payroll in Brevard County on average $824 million lower than the counterfactual outcome for every year since the final Shuttle mission, for a cumulative reduction in payroll of $3.3 billion below potential by 2015. In percentage terms, payroll grew at an average annual rate of 1.88% where its counterfactual growth rate was 5.25%. Evidence on employment suggests employment growth of 0.43% annually relative to counterfactual employment growth of 1.6%, keeping the recovery from the Great Recession anemic. Together, these estimates provide strong evidence that public investment in space is a boon for economic activity. The implications for space policy with this evidence are clear: public investment in space generates large and significant regional economic activity that needs to be taken into account when considering the costs and benefits of the investment. Further implications of the evidence for regional planners and firm managers are discussed.

Estimating the Impact of Discontinuing Shuttle Launches on Payroll and Employment in the Space Coast Using the Synthetic Control Method

The objective of this study is to quantify the impact of public investment in space programs on the regional economic activity in the areas host to the program launch operations. I implement an econometric strategy that takes the timing of the Shuttle program retirement as a natural experiment to investigate the role of public investment in space as a driver of regional economic activity. I rely on a technique known as the synthetic control method to estimate the counterfactual outcomes for the Space Coast. Comparing the observed outcomes with the estimated counterfactual outcomes provides evidence of large spillover effects of the Shuttle program in the economy of the Space Coast. My results suggest discontinuing the Shuttle program made payroll in Brevard County on average $824 million lower than the counterfactual outcome for every year since the final Shuttle mission, for a cumulative reduction in payroll of $3.3 billion below potential by 2015. In percentage terms, payroll grew at an average annual rate of 1.88% where its counterfactual growth rate was 5.25%. Evidence on employment suggests employment grow of 0.43% annually relative to counterfactual employment growth of 1.6%, keeping the recovery from the Great Recession anemic. Together, these estimates provide strong evidence that public investment in space is a boon for economic activity. The implications for space policy with this evidence are clear: public investment in space generates large and significant regional economic activity that needs to be taken into account when considering the costs and benefits of the investment. Further implications of the evidence for regional planners and firm managers are discussed.

Effects of Spaceflight on Astronaut Brain Structure as Indicated on MRI

BackgroundThere is limited information regarding the effects of spaceflight on the anatomical configuration of the brain and on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) spaces.MethodsWe used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to compare images of 18 astronauts’ brains before and after missions of long duration, involving stays on the International Space Station, and of 16 astronauts’ brains before and after missions of short duration, involving participation in the Space Shuttle Program. Images were interpreted by readers who were unaware of the flight duration. We also generated paired preflight and postflight MRI cine clips derived from high-resolution, three-dimensional imaging of 12 astronauts after long-duration flights and from 6 astronauts after short-duration flights in order to assess the extent of narrowing of CSF spaces and the displacement of brain structures. We also compared preflight ventricular volumes with postflight ventricular volumes by means of an automated analysis of T1-weighted MRIs. The main prespecified analyses focused on the change in the volume of the central sulcus, the change in the volume of CSF spaces at the vertex, and vertical displacement of the brain.ResultsNarrowing of the central sulcus occurred in 17 of 18 astronauts after long-duration flights (mean flight time, 164.8 days) and in 3 of 16 astronauts after short-duration flights (mean flight time, 13.6 days) (P<0.001). Cine clips from a subgroup of astronauts showed an upward shift of the brain after all long-duration flights (12 astronauts) but not after short-duration flights (6 astronauts) and narrowing of CSF spaces at the vertex after all long-duration flights (12 astronauts) and in 1 of 6 astronauts after short-duration flights. Three astronauts in the long-duration group had optic-disk edema, and all 3 had narrowing of the central sulcus. A cine clip was available for 1 of these 3 astronauts, and the cine clip showed upward shift of the brain.ConclusionsNarrowing of the central sulcus, upward shift of the brain, and narrowing of CSF spaces at the vertex occurred frequently and predominantly in astronauts after long-duration flights. Further investigation, including repeated postflight imaging conducted after some time on Earth, is required to determine the duration and clinical significance of these changes. (Funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.)

Estimating the Impact of Regional Labor Demand Shocks on Unemployment Using the Synthetic Control Method: Evidence from the Shuttle Program and Florida's Space Coast

The discontinuation of the Shuttle program (STS) had a measurable impact on unemployment in Florida's Space Coast, particularly in the years since the initial layoffs in aerospace industries. Estimates of the impact using the synthetic control method suggest that the unemployment rate increased on average 0.41 percentage points per year (~7.5%) every year for 6 years observed in post-treatment. I demonstrate the robustness of the estimated result to various placebo tests.

Evaluating Decision-Making Modalities and Risk Acceptance Behavior after a Major Mishap: The Case of NASA and the Space Shuttle Columbia Accident

ABSTRACTThe February 2003 loss of the space shuttle Columbia on mission STS-107 was a mishap that stunned both NASA and the world. This research examines the pre-NASA and post-NASA decision-making modalities and risk acceptance behavior for the safe and reliable operation of the space shuttle through the lens of hazard analysis. Interviews with NASA administrators and senior Space Shuttle Program managers bring back to life their views from the 2003 through 2005 timeframe, during which NASA returned the space shuttle back to a flight status. Lessons from their effort have broad applicability to other organizations recovering from—and attempting to prevent—a major accident.

(Invited) H. Russell Kunz: A Perspective on His Early Career

Fuel cell research at the Power Systems Group at Pratt & Whitney Aircraft rapidly expanded in 1962 when NASA awarded a contract to produce the fuel cells for the Apollo space program. At the time, Russ Kunz had already been at Pratt & Whitney for nine years, having been hired in 1953 straight out of college. Upon joining Pratt & Whitney, Russ was assigned to a team that had before his arrival been working to develop an advanced axial-flow turbojet engine, an activity with national security implications. This engine was to be used in two aircraft of strategic importance, an eight-engine long-range bomber and the world's first supersonic interceptor. The engine received the Air Force designation J57 and became the power plant used in both the B-52 Stratofortress bomber and the F-100 Super Sabre fighter, the latter of which became the first jet-powered aircraft able to sustain supersonic speed at low altitude and which set performance records that held for 10+ years. During his first nine years at Pratt & Whitney, Russ made significant contributions to the J57 that enabled subsequent versions to increasingly provide greater performance. Russ' involvement with the jet engine program ended when, in 1964, Pratt & Whitney moved its Power Systems Group from East Hartford, CT twelve miles north to a smaller facility in South Windsor, CT and Russ moved with it. It was at this facility where the fuel cells for every Apollo mission from 1966 to 1972 were produced. Work there continued with the transition to the Space Shuttle program from 1981 to 2011. During this period, Russ played a leading technical role. Although the fuel cell community may now remember Russ' for his more recent contributions, it was his earlier work on high-performance jet engines and power systems for the space program that embodied the technical challenges of a time when the future of aerospace technology was still being defined. This presentation will provide a brief overview of the contributions Russ made in his early career, within the context of the times, and the influence this work had on his family.

Writing on: Context and Visual Culture in Recent Works of Allen Fisher and Ulli Freer

This article is a study of Allen Fisher’s Proposals and SPUTTOR, and Ulli Freer’s Burner on the Buff. It aims to demonstrate that these works, despite their individual differences, share certain common parallels: (1) an interest in literary and visual culture, and (2) an awareness of the bearing these aspects of culture have on questions of state and civil authority. In the case of Proposals, this is discussed via the context of work – particularly in relation to the marketization of Higher Education (HE) – and Fisher’s poetics of ‘confidence in lack’. These analyses are extended further through an examination of the social history of the US Space Shuttle programme under the Reagan administration, and the visual practices of collage in SPUTTOR. The broader claims of these arguments are subsequently paralleled with cultural and socio-legal perspectives pertaining to graffiti–especially in connection to Banksy’s recent work, Art Buff, which ultimately provides a crucial context for understanding key aspects of Burner on the Buff.