Space Sector Research Articles

Investigation of long-term storage of space materials for future constellation missions: study of Braycote® 601 EF lubricant

The long-term storage (LTS) of space materials is becoming more and more critical for the next missions. For instance, for MTG (Meteosat Third Generation) mission, 5-year assemble, integration and testing (AIT) time on ground, up to 17.5-year storage for recurring models plus at least 8.5 years in orbit operation are planned. Hence, a good understanding of materials’ aging properties is desirable to ensure that materials’ specifications are still suitable after LTS, and, eventually, to anticipate the potential non-conformities. For this purpose, the European Space Research and Technology Centre (ESTEC) is investigating these problematics thanks to its wide capabilities from aging with environmental, climatic and vacuum chambers up to physico-chemical characterizations by numerous instruments such as microscopes, spectroscopes, thermal, mechanical or electrical analyzers. An overview is presented herein through the study of a fluorinated based grease lubricant named Braycote® 601EF widely used in mechanisms in space sector such as the US space shuttles actuator or the basic end effectors of The European Robotic Arm.

Russia in Outer Space: A Shrinking Space Power in the Era of Global Change

Since 2014, the Russian space sector has handled institutional rearrangement and external economic pressure. On the one hand, the establishment of the State Space Corporation Roscosmos intended to renovate a critical segment and save an industry that is one of the jewels of the Soviet legacy. On the other hand, the Russian annexation of Crimea triggered waves of financial and economic sanctions that crippled the country's access to space technologies and broader international cooperation in outer space. As a result of the dynamic, the Russian space program has been in a grey zone in recent years. On the eve of the war in Ukraine, the Russian government made a strategic choice for total decoupling from Western countries. The Russian decision stresses a trajectory already taken where space activities are increasingly becoming an instrument of deterrence. The military dimension increasingly defines the Russian space program, while LEO becomes an area for confrontation. To circumvent complete isolation in the international arena, Russia will attempt to maintain vigorous diplomatic actions to curb the technology desert and maintain vital space activities in the foreseeable future. Hence, this article aims to identify available tools that Russia may use to envision a new strategy in outer space. Considering the rupture between the West and Russia, we describe the long-term effects on the space industry. We finally highlight potential alternative cooperations that may allow Russia to build its space diplomacy around a network of peripheral states while the partnership with China remains restricted.

To boldly go where no one has gone before: a critical realist approach to space accounting

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how critical realism can be mobilised as a meta-theory, or philosophical under-labourer, for research on space accounting and how this may further inquiries into the known as well as the unknown implications of space exploration and commercialisation.Design/methodology/approachThis is a conceptual paper that applies critical realism to the field of space accounting using cost management in space contracts as an illustrative example.FindingsAdopting a naturalised version of critical realism that recognises the complex interplay between natural and social realities, the author nuances the distinction between intransitive and transitive objects of knowledge and advances a framework that may be used as a starting point for a transfactual mode of reasoning. The author then applies this mode of reasoning to the topic of cost management in the space sector and illustrates how it may enhance our insights into what causes cost overruns in space contracts.Research limitations/implicationsBy adopting a naturalised version of critical realism, the author establishes a philosophical framework that can support the broadly based, inter-disciplinary research agenda that has been envisaged for research on space accounting and possibly inform policy development.Originality/valueThis paper is the first to apply a critical realist perspective to space accounting and lays a philosophical foundation for future research on the topic.

The evolving sociotechnical futures of outer space

The anticipated futures and practices of the outer space sociotechnical system are undergoing their most significant adjustment since the Sputnik days due to the challenge posed by the vision that emphasises the interest of space for market-driven and profitable business. The theoretical notion of sociotechnical imaginaries allows to compare the traditional and commercial anticipations of space developments and their different approaches to technological progress, which are entangled with political and economic concerns. The performative power of the commerce-based imaginary is apparent in the renewed collective expectations that are shaping policy, innovation, and funding practices in the space sector. The new vision is thus contributing to transform the institutional culture that had dominated the industry, and the resulting imagination of outer space is evolving to a dual form, pragmatically alternating between the conventional and entrepreneurial representations. Yet, despite the inclusive narrative and democratisation discourse of the commercial perspective, the future-looking imaginary of outer space remains contested for economic, political, legal, and environmental reasons.

Everybody's Business to Know About Space: Cross-Disciplinarity and the Challenges of the New Space Age

Many commentators have suggested that we are witnessing the advent of a ‘New Space Age’. In addition to the opportunities presented, this New Space Age also brings challenges, many of which are unprecedented, invariably complex, and which are not readily amenable to easy or previously developed tailor-made solutions. Cross-disciplinary approaches have been suggested as a means toward which solutions to such space-related problems may be reached. This qualitative study draws on interviews with 30 policy-makers, industry body representatives, academics, and practitioners to investigate the ways in which cross-disciplinary approaches can contribute to solving the problems presented by the New Space Age. Findings indicate that the type of cross-disciplinary research approach adopted brings with it discernible costs and benefits, as well as palpable differences in the nature and extent of the contribution made to space research, space policy, and space exploration. Conclusions inform both public policy and university research policy, the literature on research collaboration between disciplines, and the effectiveness of cross-disciplinarity in the context of advancing the space sector.

Determination of the Magnetic Intermediate Permeability of Special Materials Based on FEM-Simulation and Hall-Sensor Measurement

This document presents the process flow and the experimental conditions for calculating the static magnetic intermediate permeability of a specimen with a dedicated geometrical contour and surface for simulation parameter of metal detection systems. In this case, intermediate is explained and defined as probes with a magnetic permeability between 10 and 1000. An analysis of recent and current measurement standards as well as similar simulation principles leads to the contribution value of this new hybrid process flow. To calculate the permeability value in a first step, an electromagnetic circuit was constructed and excited with a defined electrical DC current with a dedicated tolerance for generating a static approximated homogenic magnetic field in a defined air gap space sector. Additionally, to the H-field generation part double copper coil, two magnetic ferrite cylinders with known permeability were used. The electrical and magnetic circuit has been modeled by an Ansys FEM Electronic Desktop software; the solver is magnetic static. Specifically, the simulated magnetic field distribution of the airgap was evaluated by using different Hall sensor elements with different tolerances. Subsequently, the electromagnetic circuit was expanded by implementing different cylindrical and cube shaped probes on a defined position inside the air gap sector with homogenic magnetization. Moreover, based on the analysis of the air gap structure without the probes, a detailed 3D-FEM model of the air gap magnetic field with special probes was established, which provides the environmental field distribution of the probes. The simulation models were compared with the corresponding Hall sensor measurements, which proved the high accuracy experimental validity of the models established in this paper. Finally, some key features related to parameter variations in the electromagnetic circuit were extracted, which can significantly reflect the characteristics of the robustness of the measurement principle. The main findings reported in this paper will be beneficial for magnetic parameter settings in electromagnetic simulation.

India's Space Pursuit and the Changing Matrix of South Asian Security

China's rise as a global power and its pursuit of space technologies have increased India's insecurity. To address the challenge of China (and benefit from the technological revolution), India has invested heavily in the space sector. Its space program benefits from indigenous innovations and international cooperation. However, its military achievements in the space domain have aggravated Pakistan's sense of insecurity. Pakistan's financial and technological limitations have forced it to look toward China to mitigate the Indian threat and maintain the balance of power in South Asia. In addition to great power competition in the region, these perceptions of security and insecurity and states' efforts to maximize their security are likely to exacerbate competition and negatively affect the prospects of mediation.

Private companies in the Russian space industry: features of functioning and development factors

The object of the study are private companies which do their business in the Russian space industry. Statistical data on private space companies in Russia based on which the study was conducted, were collected by the author from open sources on the Internet. The purpose of research is to develop recommendations for improving the conditions for the development of private companies operating in the Russian space industry based on an analysis of their characteristics and environmental development factors. In the research, the author used methods of analysis and synthesis, methods of system and comparative analysis, statistical and graphical methods. Research results are the next: the article analyzes the main economic indicators of the Russian and foreign private space companies. The author identifies four main features of the Russian private companies in comparison with foreign ones, which functioning in the space industry. Author proposes a classification of environmental factors that contribute to and restrain the development of private space sector in Russia. Based on the results of the analysis, the author has developed recommendations for improving the economic and legal conditions for the development of Russian private companies in the space industry.

Corrosion-Resisting Nanocarbon Nanocomposites for Aerospace Application: An Up-to-Date Account

The design and necessity of corrosion-resisting nanocarbon nanocomposites have been investigated for cutting-edge aerospace applications. In this regard, nanocarbon nanofillers, especially carbon nanotubes, graphene, nanodiamond, etc. have been used to fill in various polymeric matrices (thermosets, thermoplastics, and conducting polymers) to develop anti-rusting space-related nanocomposites. This review fundamentally emphases the design, anti-corrosion properties, and application of polymer/nanocarbon nanocomposites for the space sector. An electron-conducting network is created in the polymers with nanocarbon dispersion to assist in charge transportation, and thus in the polymers’ corrosion resistance features. The corrosion resistance mechanism depends upon the formation of tortuous diffusion pathways due to nanofiller arrangement in the matrices. Moreover, matrix–nanofiller interactions and interface formation play an important role in enhancing the corrosion protection properties. The anticorrosion nanocomposites were tested for their adhesion, contact angle, and impedance properties, and NaCl tests and scratch tests were carried out. Among the polymers, epoxy was found to be superior corrosion-resisting polymer, relative to the thermoplastic polymers in these nanocomposites. Among the carbon nanotubes, graphene, and nanodiamond, the carbon nanotube with a loading of up to 7 wt.% in the epoxy matrix was desirable for corrosion resistance. On the other hand, graphene contents of up to 1 wt.% and nanodiamond contents of 0.2–0.4 wt.% were desirable to enhance the corrosion resistance of the epoxy matrix. The impedance, anticorrosion, and adhesion properties of epoxy nanocomposites were found to be better than those of the thermoplastic materials. Despite the success of nanocarbon nanocomposites in aerospace applications, thorough research efforts are still needed to design high-performance anti-rusting materials to completely replace the use of metal components in the aerospace industry.

Potential negative effects of the Brazilian Space Program on coastal sharks

The Brazilian government recently announced its first partnerships with the private sector, including American and Canadian companies, to use the Alcântara Space Center (Maranhão, northern Brazil). This center is known for its privileged location, saving up to 30% of fuel in launches. Its operationalization is an offshoot of the Technological Safeguards Agreement, which is important for the Brazilian Space Program due to greater space sector investments and environmentally relevant projects. In 2003, a major fire at the Alcântara Space Center destroyed a rocket and killed 21 workers, halting Brazilian Space Program activities. Recently, our research group reported serious environmental consequences of this accident, i.e., extremely high amounts of Rubidium (Rb) in apex predatory sharks near the Alcântara Space Center. This element is used in fuels and in space propulsion systems and is potentially toxic, displaying bioaccumulating and biomagnifying capabilities. The observed concentrations are the highest ever detected in any living organism (up to 24.65 mg kg-1 dry weight). The launch base is located on the Brazilian Amazon Coast, and population recruitment impacts may compromise biota conservation and biodiversity. Local shark meat consumption is also worrying, as consumers may be exposed to Rb, whose effects in humans are unknown. We, therefore, indicate an urgent need for biomonitoring efforts in the area, as the Alcântara Space Center is about to operate at its maximum capacity.

The Responses of China, Russia, and the United States of America to Space Policy of India

This study aims to analyze the responses of three developed countries, namely China, Russia, and the United States to India's ambitions to develop its space program and policy. As a developing country with huge domestic challenges, India prioritizes its space development amidglobal space power. This research is interested in investigating this phenomenon. The research tries to answer the question of how China, Russia, and the United States respond to India's space policy. This study employed a qualitative method by making use of data from literature studies and interviews. The analysis has revealed that each of these developed countries responds to India's space policy using various approaches by building competition and cooperation with India. Competition and cooperation significantly influence major developments in the space sector in the future. In addition, the competition and cooperation have domestically challenged India to develop its space technology and pass space policies that will result in national development.
 
 Received: 8 February 2023 / Accepted: 16 April 2023 / Published: 5 May 2023

What is value in the New Space Economy? The end-users’ perspective on satellite data and solutions

New industrial dynamics are disrupting the space sector. New stakeholders bringing in capital, technologies, and knowledge from other industries are developing next-generation space infrastructures and services. Both commercial and institutional space projects have to be valuable for a wider set of end-users, asking not only for economic returns but also social and environmental benefits. Space organizations urge understanding and fostering value in the New Space Economy ecosystem. Indeed, end-users are still struggling to enact the expected value of satellite data and solutions for their business. This paper aims to investigate the expected value and the level of adoption (enacted value) of satellite data and satellite-based solutions in the New Space Economy ecosystem from end-users’ perspective. We interviewed 21 managers from end-user organizations in different sectors (i.e., Insurance & Finance, Energy & Utility, Transportation & Logistics). Value is deeply discussed in general management literature, and we identify Value Theory as the theoretical lens with the most explanatory power for the phenomenon under examination. From the end-users’ perspective, we frame the expected value and the enacted value in taking strategic and tactical decisions regarding their activities, services and products, laying the foundations for further studies of value mechanisms in the New Space ecosystem. Our research set a theoretical and conceptual foundation on value in the New Space ecosystem. It also delineates the blurred boundaries of the New Space ecosystem, the main stakeholders involved, and their perception of value. Insights and implications for strategic and innovation management are also provided. Practitioners may exploit our research results and leverage the end-users-oriented framework to develop next-generation space projects in the New Space ecosystem. We also discuss the limitations and further developments of this research.

Downstream Space Activities in the New Space Era: Paradigm Shift and Evaluation Challenges

New Space refers to the recent opening-up of the space sector to private companies. The liberalization of space activities, which coincides with the digital evolution of the economy, is associated with the rapid expansion of the downstream space segment, i.e., space-related commercial products and services. In this paper, we address the issue of evaluating the size of the downstream space sector in light of New Space characteristics. We describe New Space as a structural transformation of the space sector associated with the entry of private companies and investors, the adoption of new business models, and the reorientation of space agencies towards market-oriented policies. In this specific context, we claim that assessing the economic weight of downstream space activities is of prime interest. Our review of space sector evaluations shows limitations of the existing methodological tools when identifying and evaluating downstream activities. We conclude this work by outlining theoretical issues regarding New Space and the expansion of space-based services markets to be considered for a new evaluation methodology.

The Science of Adhesion Insights to Understanding Adhesive Performance

The continued integration of smaller, higher-functioning devices in the Aerospace, Defense & Space sectors is making it more challenging than ever to minimize assembly failure, especially where reliability is top priority and fail-safe processes, and materials are the standard. Assembly failures due to poor adhesive bonding tend to linger causing excessive manufacturing downtime, scrap, costly rework, and delays. This paper introduces the science behind adhesion. Regardless of the application, the market or the adhesive technology being used, such as epoxy, silicone, urethane, paste or film, achieving a proper assembly bond is critical for application success. Adhesion is achieved via two mechanisms, mechanical and chemical bonding. To optimize this the adhesive must flow (or wet) across the substrate. This maximizes the interaction between the adhesive and substrate allowing flow into microscopic substrate pores for enhanced mechanical bonding as well as interaction between adhesive and substrate for chemical bonding. The molecular force of attraction between an adhesive and the substrate is determined by the surface energy of the substrates. The substrate surface energy influences the ability of the adhesive to flow and wet the substrate impacting adhesion. Measuring substrate water contact angle is an easy method to determine the relative surface energy thereby gaining information about the pending adhesive bond. This paper reviews these key factors for adhesion and presents results of an application study aimed at understanding the sensitivity and relationship of substrate water contact angle versus substrate cleanliness. The goal is to be able to use substrate water contact angle measurements as a predictive tool for adhesion.

Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: The Evolution of the Irish Space Sector from an Institutional Perspective

This article focuses on Ireland's potential as a space actor and the role that the space sector can play in contributing to Ireland's future development. By embracing the metaphor of ‘standing on the shoulders of giants’ and by reconciling an institutional perspective of entrepreneurship with the triple/quadruple helix model, the article describes the journey of the Irish space sector that has capitalised on the experience of the major space players already established in the space arena in order to successfully carve its own niche.

Toward Coherence: A Space Sector Public-Private Partnership Typology

Since the rise of public-private partnerships (PPPs) in the late 20th century, academia has engaged in critical discussions around the phenomenon and industrial organizations have developed numerous guidelines and best practices. An analytical tool that has enriched the depth of the discussions is typology. Typologies help to deconstruct complex phenomena, develop analytical frameworks, and conduct empirical investigations. With the New Space evolution and the success of National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Commercial Orbital Transportation Services, PPPs have become a frequent procurement arrangement in the space sector. Because of their theoretical benefits, PPPs are politically popular and are supported by major government space policies. However, the space policy literature uncritically praises and promotes such procurement arrangements without examining their merits. As the sector begins employing more PPPs, it is necessary to engage in critical discussions built on empirical evidence. This study presents a typology specific for space PPPs to provide a standardized language for investigations and bring coherence to the term “PPP” in the sector. The typology development involved mini-case studies of 20 space programs, and the framework embodies a well-established typology approach.

The effect of heat treatment on fatigue response of laser powder bed fused Al-Cu-Mg-Ag-TiB2 (A20X) alloy

The paper aims at assessing the effect of heat treatment on the fatigue behavior of a novel laser-powder bed fused (L-PBF) Al-Cu-Mg-Ag-TiB2 composite, otherwise known as A20X alloy. Heat treatments, (i) stress relieving, and (ii) T7 over-aging and stabilizing, were performed on L-PBF A20X materials, followed by advanced microstructural characterizations, mechanical property measurements (utilizing tensile and depth-sensing indentation testing), and force-controlled fatigue testing. Microstructural assessments revealed the ultra-fine and fine equiaxed grain structure of the L-PBF stress-relieved and aged A20X materials. Mechanical properties (yield stress, ultimate strength, and nano-hardness quantities) of the aged material were recorded as higher than the stress-relieved counter materials. By the same token, the aged material showed better low-cycle and high-cycle fatigue performance and higher fatigue strength relative to the stress-relieved conditions. Based on detailed fractography assessments, the life-limiting fatigue failures of the studied materials (stress relived and T7 aged) were primarily governed by sub-surface L-PBF-induced volumetric defects such as pores and/or lack of fusion. The findings of this study present useful information on the role/mechanism of inevitable process-induced interior defects on fatigue behavior of the Al-Cu-Mg-Ag-TiB2 composites and the effect of post-processing (i.e., aging in this research) on fatigue behavior, which is of great significance for the high-demanding and critical applications of lightweight high-strength L-PBF Al-Cu-Mg-Ag-TiB2 composites in the space and aviation sectors.

How 3D-Printing Is Changing RF Front-End Design for Space Applications

3D-printing is leading to a major transformation in many industrial and application sectors, ranging from medical to aerospace. In the space sector, 3D-printing has firstly been adopted for the development of structural and thermal parts, such as brackets and heat pipes. In more recent years, thanks to improvements in precision and surface roughness, 3D-printing technologies have steadily been investigated also for the development of radio frequency components and advanced payloads. Indeed, the unique features of 3D-printing, including the free-form capability and the ease for customization, make these manufacturing technologies very appealing in the development of complex radio-frequency front-ends for space applications, including New Space constellations and next generation software-defined communication satellites. They also enable a drastic simplification of mechanical designs by reducing the number of interfaces and assembling screws of large radio-frequency front-ends, thus leading to significant mass savings and higher integration. This paper briefly reports on recent advances in 3D-printing that have been carried out according to the current trends in radio-frequency front-ends for satellite communications.

THE ACCELERATION OF THE CHINESE SPACE PROGRAM

The acceleration of the Chinese Space program in the recent years is undisputable and definitive, asserting China’s ambitions towards the space sector and a contest of the final frontier. The pace of this acceleration has intensified as the Chinese space progress has amplified in the last years, allowing the People’s Republic of China (PRC) to dwell upon decades of space research and create space technologies with the ability to match the capabilities of traditional space nations. The Chinese National Space Agency (CNSA) has been at the helm of the developing space capabilities enabling China to compete and cooperate with other nations in outer space. Due to the nature of space, the discourse of international relations has become encompassing and dynamic, allowing the participants of the upcoming space race to shift the balance of power and project their power across the international spectrum. Recent developments in the space sector illustrate the Chinese attempts to intensify the utilization of space as a key area of interest and expand their influence globally.

Cost Model for CubeSat Projects in Mexico

This work focused on designing a cost estimation model in the area of space engineering for the development of nanosatellite projects in Mexico. See employed the use of methodologies such as Hall and Jenkins, software engineering cost estimating methodology, as well as project management methodology. Similarly, the COSYSMO methodology and parametric cost methodology were incorporated to guide this research towards the space sector. The estimation results are based on satellite engineering equations and forecasts of the inflation factor. Finally, a graphical user interface named SACANI was obtained. Allowing the estimating a nanosatellite project by ”integration of components” or by ”research and development”. The first asks the user for the components by subsystem through drop-down lists, giving a breakdown of the estimated costs for the CubeSat, development phases and ground station, according to the data provided by the interested party. The second model is more robust because it requests the type of project, the category, the amount of CubeSat required, the year to estimate the cost, the mass of the payload, among other data. Similarly, both models yield a previous result of the estimate made according to the data entered by the project estimator.