Spacelab Research Articles

Investigation of spatial and temporal variability in lower tropospheric ozone from RAL Space UV–Vis satellite products

Abstract. Ozone is a potent air pollutant in the lower troposphere and an important short-lived climate forcer (SLCF) in the upper troposphere. Studies using satellite data to investigate spatiotemporal variability of troposphere ozone (TO3) have predominantly focussed on the tropospheric column metric. This is the first study to investigate long-term spatiotemporal variability in lower tropospheric column ozone (LTCO3, surface–450 hPa sub-column) by merging multiple European Space Agency–Climate Change Initiative (ESA-CCI) products produced by the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (RAL) Space. We find that in the LTCO3, the degree of freedom of signal (DOFS) from these products varies with latitude range and season and is up to 0.8, indicating that the retrievals contain useful information on lower TO3. The spatial and seasonal variation of the RAL Space products are in good agreement with each other, but there are systematic offsets of up to 3.0–5.0 DU between them. Comparison with ozonesondes shows that the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME-1, 1996–2003), the SCanning Imaging Absorption spectroMeter for Atmospheric CartograpHY (SCIAMACHY, 2003–2010) and the Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI, 2005–2017) have stable LTCO3 records over their respective periods, which can be merged together. However, GOME-2 (2008–2018) shows substantial drift in its bias with respect to ozonesondes. We have therefore constructed a robust merged data set of LTCO3 from GOME-1, SCIAMACHY and OMI between 1996 and 2017. Comparing the LTCO3 differences between the 1996–2000 and 2013–2017 5-year averages, we find sizeable positive increases (3.0–5.0 DU) in the tropics/sub-tropics, while in the northern mid-latitudes, we find small-scale differences in LTCO3. Therefore, we conclude that there has been a substantial increase in tropical/sub-tropical LTCO3 during the satellite era, which is consistent with tropospheric column ozone (TCO3) records from overlapping time periods (e.g. 2005–2016).

RealTHASC—a cyber-physical XR testbed for AI-supported real-time human autonomous systems collaborations

Today’s research on human-robot teaming requires the ability to test artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms for perception and decision-making in complex real-world environments. Field experiments, also referred to as experiments “in the wild,” do not provide the level of detailed ground truth necessary for thorough performance comparisons and validation. Experiments on pre-recorded real-world data sets are also significantly limited in their usefulness because they do not allow researchers to test the effectiveness of active robot perception and control or decision strategies in the loop. Additionally, research on large human-robot teams requires tests and experiments that are too costly even for the industry and may result in considerable time losses when experiments go awry. The novel Real-Time Human Autonomous Systems Collaborations (RealTHASC) facility at Cornell University interfaces real and virtual robots and humans with photorealistic simulated environments by implementing new concepts for the seamless integration of wearable sensors, motion capture, physics-based simulations, robot hardware and virtual reality (VR). The result is an extended reality (XR) testbed by which real robots and humans in the laboratory are able to experience virtual worlds, inclusive of virtual agents, through real-time visual feedback and interaction. VR body tracking by DeepMotion is employed in conjunction with the OptiTrack motion capture system to transfer every human subject and robot in the real physical laboratory space into a synthetic virtual environment, thereby constructing corresponding human/robot avatars that not only mimic the behaviors of the real agents but also experience the virtual world through virtual sensors and transmit the sensor data back to the real human/robot agent, all in real time. New cross-domain synthetic environments are created in RealTHASC using Unreal Engine™, bridging the simulation-to-reality gap and allowing for the inclusion of underwater/ground/aerial autonomous vehicles, each equipped with a multi-modal sensor suite. The experimental capabilities offered by RealTHASC are demonstrated through three case studies showcasing mixed real/virtual human/robot interactions in diverse domains, leveraging and complementing the benefits of experimentation in simulation and in the real world.

A comparative analysis of potential aerosol exposure in a wide-body aircraft cabin using tracer gas and fluorescent particles

We compare two aerosol surrogate tracers in aircraft cabins for breathing and coughing sources: tracer gas collected in the ACER Boeing 767 mock-up and fluorescent particles collected in an actual Boeing 767 aircraft by the US Transportation Command (TRANSCOM). Each source was located individually in window and middle seats. Exposure generally decreased with source distance. A window seat breathing source resulted in good agreement between datasets for exposure (as percent of release) for the TRANSCOM hangar-AFT testing mode, which corresponds to the 11-row cabin ACER laboratory space. Average tracer gas exposure for a middle seat breathing source was higher in the ACER study than the fluorescent particle tracer exposure in the TRANSCOM study. Using a coughing source in a window seat, the exposure for the TRANSCOM data was higher within the first two rows from the source before decreasing to and tracking with the ACER levels, until increasing after about 5 m away. A similar trend was recorded for a middle seat coughing source with higher overall exposure for the TRANSCOM data. Sources of exposure variation between the studies include particle deposition. This work helps optimize aerosol dispersion research in aircraft cabins and provides some validation to the existing studies.

Can I benefit from laboratory automation? A decision aid for the successful introduction of laboratory automation

The large volumes of samples to be analysed every day would be impossible to manage without laboratory automation. As laboratory procedures have progressed, so have the tasks of laboratory personnel. With this feature article, we would like to provide (bio)chemical practitioners with little or no knowledge of laboratory automation with a guide to help them decide whether to implement laboratory automation and find a suitable system. Especially in small- and medium-sized laboratories, operating a laboratory system means having bioanalytical knowledge, but also being familiar with the technical aspects. However, time, budget and personnel limitations allow little opportunity for personnel to get into the depths of laboratory automation. This includes not only the operation, but also the decision to purchase an automation system. Hasty investments do not only result in slow or non-existent cost recovery, but also occupy valuable laboratory space. We have structured the article as a decision tree, so readers can selectively read chapters that apply to their individual situation. This flexible approach allows each reader to create a personal reading flow tailored to their specific needs. We tried to address a variety of perspectives on the topic, including people who are either supportive or sceptical of laboratory automation, personnel who want or need to automate specific processes, those who are unsure whether to automate and those who are interested in automation but do not know which areas to prioritize. We also help to make a decision whether to reactivate or discard already existing and unused laboratory equipment.

Analysis of Physics Laboratory Facilities and Management Standards at SMA Negeri 1 Mumbulsari - Jember

This research was conducted to determine the standards of physics laboratory facilities and management at SMA Negeri 1 Mumbusari. This research uses descriptive research methods and a qualitative approach. The subjects of this research were laboratory managers, physics study teachers, as well as physics laboratory facilities and infrastructure at SMA Negeri 1 Mumbulsari. The collection technique is by making observations, conducting interviews with laboratory managers, and documentation. The results of the research are that SMA Negeri 1 Mumbulsari has a standard percentage of laboratory space of 67% and a standard percentage of laboratory facilities of 85% with good classification. The physics laboratory administration and management system at SMA Negeri 1 Mumbulsari is very good. So overall the physics laboratory at SMA Negeri 1 Mumbulsari has good standards of laboratory facilities and management

Efficient segmentation with texture in ore images based on box-supervised approach

Image segmentation methods have been utilized to determine the particle size distribution of crushed ores. Due to the complex working environment, high-powered computing equipment is difficult to deploy. At the same time, the ore distribution is stacked, and it is difficult to identify the complete features. To address this issue, an effective box-supervised technique with texture features is provided for ore image segmentation that can identify complete and independent ores. Firstly, a ghost feature pyramid network (Ghost-FPN) is proposed to process the features obtained from the backbone to reduce redundant semantic information and computation generated by complex networks. Then, an optimized detection head is proposed to obtain the feature to maintain accuracy. Finally, Lab color space (Lab) and local binary patterns (LBP) texture features are combined to form a fusion feature similarity-based loss function to improve accuracy while incurring no loss. Experiments on MS COCO have shown that the proposed fusion features are also worth studying on other types of datasets. Extensive experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method, which achieves over 50 frames per second with a small model size of 21.6 MB. Meanwhile, the method maintains a high level of accuracy 67.8 in AP50box and 47.7 in AP50mask compared with the state-of-the-art approaches on ore image dataset, even better than bounding box tightness prior (BBTP) by 10.4/1.3 on AP50box/ AP50maskmetrics with the ResNet50 as backbone. The source code is available at https://github.com/MVME-HBUT/OREINST.

Analisis Tingkat Kenyamanan Termal dan Kepuasan Pengguna di Laboratorium Teknik Mesin Universitas Malikussaleh

The laboratory is a place used for practicum, research, and can support the teaching and learning process. The mechanical engineering laboratory space is the most important space and is often used to support study activities in the mechanical engineering department of the university. However, laboratory conditions that do not use air conditioning and only rely on natural ventilation result in the lack of thermal comfort for users to comfortably support user activities. Apart from that, the high temperatures produced by heat through metal roofs from exposure to sunlight, equipment machines that emit hot temperatures, as well as the small amount of incoming and outgoing air flow are the objectives of selecting objects in this research. Thermal comfort is influenced by several variables, namely external, internal factors and air opening design. This research uses a mix method, namely qualitative and quantitative research methods with a descriptive approach. The results of this research are in the form of an analysis which shows that the thermal conditions of the four laboratory rooms do not meet the thermal comfort standards set by ASHRAE with conditions being above the comfort zone and the PMV comfort index cannot be said to be comfortable because there is no wind blowing into the building.

Dialogue and Repertoire: The Ever-Changing Nature of Walking and Talking Together

This conversation between Professor Diana Taylor and Dr. Andrea Maciel presents Taylor’s life-long experience fostering art and activism, as well as promoting dialogical research encounters through The Hemispheric Institute of Performance & Politics. The discussion encompasses the role of the archive as part of a mutual collaboration between performance and practice as research whilst opening a critical inquiry on how new epistemologies for artists and researchers can contemplate the archive as a force for the creation of laboratorial praxis.  Drawing on her long experience as a core member of Cross Pollination (CP), an international arts research platform for the exchange of knowledge and nomadic laboratory spaces, Maciel invites Taylor to also reflect about the power of performances and somatic practices to trace trauma related to social cultural alienation and oppression.

Learning Lab:: A Hands-On Way for Future Scientists to Engage with CRISPR.

The Learning Lab serves as a resource for students to come into a laboratory space and work with genomic scientists on cutting-edge CRISPR research. This opportunity was created to reach students with fewer resources in their classroom. We hope to expand this program further in the coming years throughout all of Delaware to further our mission of inclusion and equity in education.

Supervised machine learning-based multivariate regression of parallel closures for a high-collisionality deuterium-carbon plasma

Many plasmas of interest in laboratory experiments and space consist of multiple ion species. In tokamak edge plasmas, for instance, ionized impurities expelled from the vessel wall influence plasma transport. When describing multi-species plasmas using fluid equations, we need accurate closure relations to close the set of fluid equations. In this study, we introduce the development of fitting formulas for parallel closures using supervised machine learning, in conjunction with the recent closure theory [J.-Y. Ji, Plasma Phys. Controlled Fusion 65, 075014 (2023)], considering multi-ion collisions and arbitrary ion temperatures. We apply this approach to a high-collisionality deuterium-carbon plasma and demonstrate its effectiveness. The machine learning-based method for developing practical and accurate closures can be extended to a wider range of plasmas.

Dynamics of a Plasma Cloud Generated by a Compact Coaxial Gun upon Expansion into Vacuum and Large-Volume Background Plasma in an External Magnetic Field

Results of experiments on injection of dense plasma clouds created by a small-scale coaxial generator into vacuum and large-volume background plasma in an ambient magnetic field are presented. The regime of an “infinite” background medium that allows studying the plasma-cloud dynamics on the scale of about one meter in the directions perpendicular and parallel to a quasi-uniform magnetic field is realized on “Krot” plasma device. The dynamics of the diamagnetic cavity appearing upon magnetic-field expulsion by a plasma blob, the electromagnetic noise appearing in the cavity, along with the evolution of plasma-cloud structure during injection and at the stage of its decay, were studied. It is demonstrated that the key properties of the cloud dynamics that are typical of the active space and high-energy laboratory experiments, including complete expulsion of the magnetic field from the cloud and development of the flute instability at its boundary, are reproduced at low injection speed (below 30 km/s) and low plasma energy (on the order of 0.1 J).

FINDeM: A CRISPR‐based, molecular method for rapid, inexpensive and field‐deployable organism detection

Abstract The field of ecology has undergone a molecular revolution, with researchers increasingly relying on DNA‐based methods for organism detection. Unfortunately, these techniques often require expensive equipment, dedicated laboratory spaces and specialized training in molecular and computational techniques; limitations that may exclude field researchers, underfunded programmes and citizen scientists from contributing to cutting‐edge science. It is for these reasons that we have designed a simplified, inexpensive method for field‐based molecular organism detection—FINDeM (Field‐deployable Isothermal Nucleotide‐based Detection Method). In this approach, DNA is extracted using chemical cell lysis and a cellulose filter disc, followed by two body‐heat inducible reactions—recombinase polymerase amplification and a CRISPR‐Cas12a fluorescent reporter assay—to amplify and detect target DNA, respectively. Here, we introduce and validate FINDeM in detecting Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the causative agent of amphibian chytridiomycosis, and show that this approach can identify single‐digit DNA copies from epidermal swabs in under 1 h using low‐cost supplies and field‐friendly equipment. This research signifies a breakthrough in ecology, as we demonstrate a field‐deployable platform that requires only basic supplies (i.e. micropipettes, plastic consumables and a UV flashlight), inexpensive reagents (~$1.29 USD/sample) and emanated body heat for highly sensitive, DNA‐based organism detection. By presenting FINDeM in an ecological system with pressing, global biodiversity implications, we aim to not only highlight how CRISPR‐based applications promise to revolutionize organism detection but also how the continued development of such techniques will allow for additional, more diversely trained researchers to answer the most pressing questions in ecology.

Large amplitude dust-acoustic solitary waves and double layers in nonthermal warm complex plasmas

Using a Sagdeev pseudo-potential approach, where the nonlinear structures are stationary in a comoving frame, the arbitrary or large amplitude dust-acoustic solitary waves and double layers have been studied in dusty plasmas containing warm positively charged dust and nonthermal distributed electrons and ions. Depending on the values of the critical Mach number, which varies with the plasma parameter, both supersonic and subsonic dust-acoustic solitary waves are found. It is found that our plasma system under consideration supports both positive and negative supersonic solitary waves and only positive subsonic solitary waves and negative double layers. The parametric regimes for the existence of subsonic and supersonic dust-acoustic waves and how the polarity of solitary waves changes with plasma parameters are shown. It is observed that the solitary wave and double layer solutions exist at the values of Mach number around its critical Mach number. The basic properties (amplitude, width, speed, etc.) of the solitary pulses and double layers are significantly modified by the plasma parameters (viz., ion to positive dust number density ratio, ion to electron temperature ratio, nonthermal parameter, and positive dust temperature to ion temperature ratio). The applications of our present work in space environments (viz., cometary tails, Earth’s mesosphere, and Jupiter’s magnetosphere) and laboratory devices, where nonthermal ion and electron species along with positively charged dust species have been observed, are briefly discussed.

Lessons from a Space Lab: An Image Acquisition Perspective

The use of deep learning (DL) algorithms has improved the performance of vision-based space applications in recent years. However, generating large amounts of annotated data for training these DL algorithms has proven challenging. While synthetically generated images can be used, the DL models trained on synthetic data are often susceptible to performance degradation when tested in real-world environments. In this context, the Interdisciplinary Center of Security, Reliability and Trust (SnT) at the University of Luxembourg has developed the “SnT Zero-G Lab,” for training and validating vision-based space algorithms in conditions emulating real-world space environments. An important aspect of the SnT Zero-G Lab development was the equipment selection. From the lessons learned during the lab development, this article presents a systematic approach combining market survey and experimental analyses for equipment selection. In particular, the article focuses on the image acquisition equipment in a space lab: background materials, cameras, and illumination lamps. The results from the experiment analyses show that the market survey complimented by experimental analyses is required for effective equipment selection in a space lab development project.

Interferometric Calibration Based on a Constrained Evolutionary Algorithm without Ground Control Points for a Tiangong-2 Interferometric Imaging Radar Altimeter

The interferometric imaging radar altimeter (InIRA), mounted on the Tiangong-2 space laboratory, utilizes a small incidence and a short interferometric baseline to achieve altimetry for wide swathes of ocean surface topography and inland water surface elevation. To obtain a high-precision digital elevation model (DEM), calibration of the interferometric system parameters is necessary. Because InIRA utilizes the small-incidence interference system design, serious coupling occurs between the interferometric parameters. Commonly used interferometric calibration methods tend to fall into the local optimal solution for InIRA. Because evolutionary algorithms have a stronger robustness and global search ability, they are better suited to handling the solution space structure under the coupling of complex interferometric parameters. This article establishes an interferometric calibration optimization model for InIRA by utilizing the relative flatness of the lake surface as an inequality constraint. Furthermore, an adaptive penalty coefficient constraint evolutionary algorithm is designed to solve the model. The proposed method was tested on actual InIRA data, and the results indicate that it efficiently adjusts interferometric parameters, enhancing the precision of measurements for Qinghai Lake elevation.

A novel room concept for shared resource laboratories.

Shared resource laboratories/core facilities (SRLs) are centralized platforms that house and provide access to complex and expensive research equipment. Due to the highly complex nature of the instrumentation they support, SRLs have special environmental requirements for their laboratory space. Here, we describe the planning and establishment of a large light microscopy SRL, with a special focus on room layout, custom-designed air conditioning and vibration, which can also be adapted to proteomics, genomics, and flow or mass cytometry SRLs.

A-186 Enabling Laboratories to Do More With Less: Assessment of Workflow Efficiencies Through Instrument Consolidation in an Immunology Lab

Abstract Background As today’s laboratories adjust to the ever-changing landscape of growing demands while continuing to provide quality diagnostic testing, the need to evaluate and improve workflow, productivity and efficiency has never been more important. One way to ensure current processes and technology are fully optimized is to perform a Workflow Analysis Study. Geisinger Medical Center (GMC) recognized an opportunity to consolidate their immunology laboratory for allergy and autoimmune testing with annual volume of approximately 138 000. A consolidation solution can result in many improvements for the laboratory, such as: improved turnaround times, decreased manual labor, reduced reagent waste, increased employee morale, enhanced space utilization. Maximizing operational efficiencies is and will always be a good business model. We aimed to assess pre- and post- workflow changes to determine impact to laboratory resources. Methods To measure the impact of the instrument consolidation and integration of Phadia250TM systems, operational data was collected through direct workflow observations, time and motion studies, and targeted interviews of testing personnel at GMC’s Immunology Laboratory. The initial/baseline study was conducted in May 2022 and the follow-up/post study occurred in October 2022. The baseline study encompassed seven separate platforms that GMC utilized for autoimmune and allergy testing. The following systems were included: two DYNEX DSX®, two Werfen BIO-FLASH®, two Siemens IMMULITE® 2000, one ZEUS IFA™. Results The workflow assessment resulted in GMC consolidating down to three platforms for autoimmune and allergy testing: two Phadia250, one ZEUS IFA™. The major benefit of the change was the reduction in technology from three types of technology to one type of technology, resulting in standardization of practices. The decrease in number of testing systems simplified overall test management (reduced LIS interface, process steps, instrument maintenance, reagent management, contract management) and reduced system footprints. A total of 361 square feet of laboratory space was saved equating to a 57% improvement over the baseline metric. After consolidating most of the testing to the two Phadia250 systems, the total daily manual time went from 4.2 h to just over 2.5 h. The combined workflow assessment resulted in saving a total of one full time employee (FTE). Conclusion To keep up with growing testing demands, laboratories must continue to produce high-quality results in an efficient manner. Test assay quality and utilization should also be evaluated when determining test consolidation options. Instrument consolidation is a viable strategy to save on technologist time, space and costs.This can result in not only economic savings to the laboratory, but also allows medical technologist to be funneled to other more needed areas of the laboratory, while saved space can be used for test expansion. In the climate of major medical technologist shortage nationwide, efficient workflows and productivity are important considerations to ensure the continued success of any laboratory.

An Independent Degree-eight Mars Gravity Field Model and the Expected Results from the Tianwen-1 Mission

Tianwen-1 is China’s first independent interplanetary exploration mission, targeting Mars, and includes orbiting, landing, and rover phases. Similar to previous Mars missions, the Tianwen-1 orbiter was designed for polar orbits during the scientific mission period but has an exceptional eccentricity of approximately 0.59. We provide the first independent eight-degree Martian gravity field model in this paper, which was developed exclusively by a team working in China with our independent software as well, based on about two months of radiometric Doppler and range data from only the Tianwen-1 mission. This model is independent from the models created by the groups at NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Goddard Space Flight Center in the United States, as well as the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales in France. Furthermore, in order to optimize the engineering and scientific benefits, we proposed a number of potential orbits for the extended Tianwen-1 mission. In order to solve a higher-degree independent Mars gravity field model, the viability of modifying the perigee height was investigated, with the priority considerations of fuel savings and implementation hazards being controlled.

A Combination of Caffeine, TeaCrine, and Dynamine Improves the Neurophysiological and Performance Measures of Electronic (E)-Gamers.

Video games require precise motor skills, quick reaction times, and cognitive engagement. The tremendous growth of the electronic (e)-gaming industry has increased the demands for cognitive supplements (e.g., nootropics) to help e-athletes gain a competitive edge. The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of combined caffeine + TeaCrine + Dynamine measures of neurophysiological and first-person shooter game performance in e-gamers. Using a randomized double-blinded, crossover design, we assessed the effects of an acute, single-dose treatment of caffeine (200 mg) vs. caffeine (200 mg) + TeaCrine (10 mg) + Dynamine (50 mg) (CTD) vs. Ppacebo (maltodextrin). Each participant was tested under all three conditions one week apart. Baseline and post-dose measures were tested one hour apart. Participants [n = 49 male (24.4 ±, 4.5 yr)] were amateur e-gamers who play a first-person video game for at least 10 hours/week. Gaming performance was assessed through a series of first-person shooter training games through AIMLAB (State Space Labs, Inc., New York,USA). These included Reflex Shot (RS) standard, speed, and precision. The neurophysiological activity was captured while participants played three games through a single-channel EEG. In the standard game, the caffeine and the CTD conditions shot significantly more targets relative to the placebo, and both caffeine and the CTD condition had significantly greater targets post-dose compared to pre-dose. However, both the placebo and caffeine conditions had significantly slower reaction times post-dose compared to pre-dose. In the speed game, both the caffeine and placebo conditions shot a significantly greater number of targets, while the placebo and caffeine conditions had significantly more shots post-dose compared to pre-dose. Only the CTD condition had a significant increase in total kills post-dose compared to pre-dose. In the precision game, only the CTD condition significantly improved the number of kills per second post-dose, while only the caffeine condition had more shots post-dose. EEG data collected concomitantly with game playing showed that the CTD condition resulted in significantly lower alpha power compared to the placebo condition. The CTD group also showed increased theta activity post-dose during game playing compared to both the placebo caffeine conditions. CTD appears to improve overall shooting gaming performance and neurophysiological measures of cognitive activity compared to caffeine and placebo. Collectively, these findings suggest that CTD assists with speed-accuracy tradeoffs where caffeine-only can lead to erratic play; thus, CTD may be particularly beneficial for shooting precision. The EEG data support this notion since the CTD exhibited lower alpha power suggesting increased cognitive flexibility and arousal and higher theta power suggesting greater cognitive control and decision-making under pressure.

The Past, Present and Future of UK Human Spaceflight

This paper provides a broad review of the UK’s interest in human spaceflight (HSF), covering its past, present and possible future. It looks at the origins of the national interest, starting with the British science fiction “visionaries” HG Wells and AC Clarke from the early 1900s. Considering what might have been if governments had more fully invested in UK HSF activity during the 1960-80s, it notes that despite a positive cultural enthusiasm the UK appears to have been held back by institutional scepticism and a lack of government financial commitment - this attitude strongly contrasted with that of other developed nations, particularly Germany, France and Italy. Following a sudden reversal of government policy for human space activity post-2008, a deeper HSF involvement by the UK now seems achievable, depending on sufficient funding - ESA’s 2022 selection of three new British astronaut candidates is a very positive step-forward. The paper broadly considers the opportunities via the combination of human and robotic exploration (HRE) with direct microgravity research on the ISS and the forthcoming private space labs in LEO, plus participation in NASA-led “Artemis” lunar exploration. The latter could involve applied UK space industry initiatives, possibly including lunar navigation and communications satellite construction, Gateway space-station services, plus potential nuclear power sources for a future Moonbase. Space-based solar power with HSF support, expanding space tourism activity, then the future exploration of the Moon and Mars may then be followed by ISRU exploitation and commercial space mining. The paper concludes with a revue of the importance and need for HSF for space research and exploration, it’s “value for money”, potential long-term futures and the contribution HSF makes to the “Big History” of humanity as a space-faring species. Keywords: Astronauts, Human spaceflight (HSF), Arthur C Clarke, European Space Agency (ESA), UK Space Agency, Tim Peake, Artemis, SUSIE, ISS, Orion, Argonaut, Moonbase, World History