Space Habitat Research Articles

LIFESTYLE IN SPACE HABITAT

For humanity to settle in space, several space habitats have been proposed: The Bernal sphere, the ONeill cylinder, and The Stanford Torus. Among them, the most acceptable space habitat is The Stanford Torus. Although the structure and other parameters are available, the food criteria and living organisms to be present are overlooked. To have healthy living conditions in the limited area and environment of the torus-shaped space habitat pose a challenge. For the residents to have working stamina in the space habitat, The Stanford Torus, approximately 3000Kcal energy is required. Accordingly, a diet chart fulfilling the requirement is needed. With the limited number of human and animal species living there, a careful analysis of which animals to be kept in the colony and their consequences should also be carried out. Thus the main highlights of this paper are: 1. Food Habits of the people to meet the energy requirement The types of organisms such as animals, plants, and microorganisms, along with 10,000 humans to be taken there.

Construction management in space: explore solution space of optimal schedule and cost estimate

Multi-planetary life is one of humanity's audacious dreams. A key challenge towards achieving such a space mission is the design and construction of space habitats, for instance, on Mars. This paper presents a virtual space construction decision framework (SCDF) prototype developed and tested to address the question: "How can space construction project partners make informed decisions and leverage new construction methods and cutting-edge technologies that are developed and transform the AEC terrestrial industry?" We consider six practical and theoretical points of departure reflecting knowledge and technology and their application towards developing SCDF: General Contractor Workflow; BIM; Generative Scheduling and Construction Schedule Optimization; Construction Robotics; 3D Printing; Virtual Reality (VR) and Visualization. SCDF development applied virtual design and construction (VDC) to model - simulate - optimize - visualize - validate a space construction project by exploring the solution space in the context of extra-terrestrial construction environments from concept design to construction completion in the virtual environment before any mission is launched. Results confirm that insights from terrestrial construction apply to extra-terrestrial construction and vice versa. These insights contribute to the six points of departure at three levels: 1. The SCDF; 2. Extensions to existing technology platforms; 3. New approaches and methods.

Evaluation of deep space exploration risks and mitigations against radiation and microgravity.

Ionizing radiation and microgravity are two considerable health risks encountered during deep space exploration. Both have deleterious effects on the human body. On one hand, weightlessness is known to induce a weakening of the immune system, delayed wound healing and musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and sensorimotor deconditioning. On the other hand, radiation exposure can lead to long-term health effects such as cancer and cataracts as well as have an adverse effect on the central nervous and cardiovascular systems. Ionizing radiation originates from three main sources in space: galactic cosmic radiation, solar particle events and solar winds. Furthermore, inside the spacecraft and inside certain space habitats on Lunar and Martian surfaces, the crew is exposed to intravehicular radiation, which arises from nuclear reactions between space radiation and matter. Besides the approaches already in use, such as radiation shielding materials (such as aluminium, water or polyethylene), alternative shielding materials (including boron nanotubes, complex hybrids, composite hybrid materials, and regolith) and active shielding (using fields to deflect radiation particles) are being investigated for their abilities to mitigate the effects of ionizing radiation. From a biological point of view, it can be predicted that exposure to ionizing radiation during missions beyond Low Earth Orbit (LEO) will affect the human body in undesirable ways, e.g., increasing the risks of cataracts, cardiovascular and central nervous system diseases, carcinogenesis, as well as accelerated ageing. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the risks related to deep space exploration and to develop mitigation strategies to reduce these risks to a tolerable level. By using biomarkers for radiation sensitivity, space agencies are developing extensive personalised medical examination programmes to determine an astronaut's vulnerability to radiation. Moreover, researchers are developing pharmacological solutions (e.g., radioprotectors and radiomitigators) to proactively or reactively protect astronauts during deep space exploration. Finally, research is necessary to develop more effective countermeasures for use in future human space missions, which can also lead to improvements to medical care on Earth. This review will discuss the risks space travel beyond LEO poses to astronauts, methods to monitor astronauts' health, and possible approaches to mitigate these risks.

High seasonal overlap in habitat suitability in a non-migratory High Arctic ungulate

Understanding drivers of space use and habitat selection is essential for management and conservation, especially under rapid environmental change. Here, we develop summer and winter habitat suitability models for the endemic wild Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus). The High Arctic Svalbard tundra is currently subject to the fastest temperature increases on Earth, and reindeer spatial responses to associated environmental change are strongly restricted due to landscape barriers (including 60% glacial coverage) and lack of sea ice as movement corridors. We used an extensive dataset of GPS-collared adult females (2009–2018; N = 268 individual-years) to model seasonal habitat selection as a function of remotely sensed environmental variables , and subsequently built habitat suitability models using an ensemble modelling framework. As expected, we found that reindeer preferred productive habitats, described by the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and plant biomass (derived from a vegetation map), in both seasons. This was further supported by selection for bird cliff areas, rich in forage, improving habitat suitability especially in winter. Contrary to our expectations, the terrain variables had similar, impact on habitat suitability in the two seasons, except for use of higher elevations in winter, likely related to improved forage access due to less snow. Suitable habitat patches covered only a small proportion of the landscape and were highly clustered in both seasons. About 13.0% of the total land area was suitable in both seasons, while summer-only and winter-only areas contributed a marginal addition of around 4.7% and 1.5%, respectively. This suggests, that unlike many continental and migratory Rangifer populations, even small geographic areas may encompass suffiscient suitable habitat. These first archipelago-wide habitat suitability models provide seasonal baseline maps relevant for the management and conservation of Svalbard reindeer, particularly under rapid environmental alterations from climate change.

Designing Visual Displays for Deep Space Habitats: Challenges and Opportunities from a Cognitive Task Analysis with ISS Mission Control

This paper explores some challenges and opportunities in designing visual interfaces for deep space habitats with communication delays to Earth. The study first examines how Mission Control for the International Space Station (ISS) operates in detecting and responding to anomalous events. Interviews with participants who have held roles as flight controllers, backroom engineers, astronauts, or flight instructors for ISS and shuttle missions were conducted to gain insights into the responses to anomalous events. The collected anomalous scenarios were then re-considered under the context of deep space missions, where communication delays and other environmental factors are substantially different. Findings and insights on data analysis of the anomalous scenarios were then presented subsequently. Based on the findings, four areas of challenges and opportunities for visual interfaces design were identified. The paper suggests that these design challenges and opportunities be considered in more detail in future research.

Community Science Online: Building Capacity for Native Bee Monitoring

Native bees are crucial for sustainable productivity in natural, agricultural, and urban ecosystems, but they are losing natural habitat spaces. Extension can facilitate community science programs to collect ecological data on native bee populations and support pollinator conservation. Native Bee Watch, an in-person community science program, transitioned to a hybrid format where volunteers received online training and support for conducting field-based data collection. This article presents the volunteers’ perceptions of the program training, support, and bee monitoring based on surveys and data analytics collected from technology tools. Study results indicate redesign successes and challenges and provide insight on how to improve the experience for volunteers participating in community science programs, with implications for Extension education.

HABITABLE CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR SPACE SETTLEMENT

Space habitats have been among the most discussed topics for decades. Many models have also been designed to sustain humanity in space. Among them are The Bernal sphere, The ONeill cylinder, and The Stanford Torus. The Stanford torus being the most acceptable model, designed the settlement as a torus located in the L5 point between the earth and the moon. By keeping the basic structure and location of the torus similar to it, a few structural changes have been suggested here, aiming to create better living conditions in the space habitat: dividing the torus into two and providing a general residential plan. Along with it, some other essential living criteria are also highlighted, such as the waste and water management systems.

Flips: Fluidic Integration of Printed Sensors

As NASA’s manned exploration programs advance toward more challenging missions including Martian spaceflight and long-term space habitation, novel technologies must be adapted for astronaut health monitoring and diagnostics. Among the technologies currently under development, In-Space Manufacturing (ISM) is an attractive approach because it mitigates the need to include multiple prefabricated sensors in spaceflight payloads instead allowing production of sensors on an as-needed basis by additive manufacturing techniques such as 3D-printing and inkjet printing. Several examples of ISM sensors have been demonstrated recently. However, liquid sample handling in microgravity environments produces several challenges, and consequently all liquid handling must be contained in a closed environment to prevent sample loss and contamination of crew quarters. Here we demonstrate the development of an ISM-compatible manifold for the fluidic integration of printed sensors (FLIPS). Our approach to the development of the FLIPS manifold is to identify components that cannot be manufactured using ISM techniques, and to fabricate all other components using flight-heritage 3D-printing and CNC cutting. FLIPS includes a mounted peristaltic pump and switch valve with measurements performed on off-the-shelf screen-printed carbon electrodes. We demonstrate the performance of the manifold with a model redox species (ferrocene carboxylic acid). Finally, we show the potential application as an integrated healthcare diagnostic system by detection of a renal health biomarker, alkaline phosphatase.This capability is necessary to ensure the success of ISM sensors for liquid samples and allows further customization of sensor architectures. The FLIPS platform demonstrates the applicability of ISM to complex fluid handling that will be adopted in future NASA missions.

Establishment of regression equation between the herbaceous cover and herbage carbon of different plant functional types in a dry tropical grassland of BHU, Varanasi

Grasslands are one of the largest carbon sinks and are crucial in the carbon cycle. However, modelling each species' carbon versus cover relationship is complex, and modelling ground flora covers of plant functional types simplify model development and provide a helpful link between physiologic strategies and ecosystem processes. The present experiment randomly selected 115 quadrats of 1×1 meters from the Banaras Hindu University campus. The cover of each herbaceous species was recorded by visual charting method and measured by gridding each 1×1 meter quadrat into 100 cells; each represented 1% cover. Species-wise, herbage carbon content was calculated. Species-wise, herbage carbon, and cover were further categorized into different functional types. Prostate, perennials, grasses, and native plants accumulate more carbon and could solve global warming problems. The established regression equation between plant cover and carbon content could be used at a worldwide scale for non-destructive estimation of carbon at functional group levels. Furthermore, non-destructive methods are superior to destructive methods in maintaining the diversity of tropical grassland because biomass harvesting can destroy the habitat spaces of rare and endangered species.

Stratified activity: Vertical partitioning of the diel cycle by rainforest mammals in Borneo

AbstractAnimal activity is driven by the environmental conditions and physical structure of a habitat, and the need to interact with, or avoid, other animals. Knowledge of the proportion of the 24‐hour cycle spent active (activity level), and the time/s of day in which activity is concentrated (activity pattern), informs our understanding of species' ecology and community dynamics. In multidimensional habitats such as tropical rainforests, arboreal (canopy‐dwelling) taxa comprise up to three‐quarters of vertebrate assemblages; yet, wildlife surveys are typically limited to ground level. Terrestrial‐only sampling can result in activity metrics that do not take account of species' full use of horizontal and vertical habitat space. We paired ground‐ and canopy‐level camera traps to characterize mammal activity across vertical strata in Borneo. Additionally, we sampled unlogged and recovering‐logged rainforest to evaluate whether this activity was impacted by logging. Activity across vertical strata varied substantially among 37 species. Arboreal mammals were predominantly nocturnal or diurnal but never cathemeral, terrestrial mammals were mostly nocturnal or cathemeral, and semi‐arboreal mammals appeared to fill the temporal niches under‐utilized by other groups. Differences in activity between unlogged and recovering‐logged forest were minimal, with 92% of species found in both forest types retaining the same activity pattern. Our study demonstrates that the inclusion of canopy‐based sampling provides much greater insights into overall rainforest mammal activity than terrestrial sampling alone. Our results suggest that the varying opportunities and constraints of each stratum act in concert to influence the diel patterns of tropical mammals.Abstract in Malay is available with online material.

Analytical Model for Sparing Policy Analysis and Optimization for Space Habitat Operations

The inclusion of operational sparing policies in early system definition can ensure that spares’ allocations can optimally meet desired system reliabilities consistent with the planned maintenance of a crewed vehicle. This approach is critical for long-duration crewed missions where mass allocations are constrained and lack of safe abort contingencies limit options in the event of significant system degradation, especially in the environmental control and life support systems. This paper presents an analytical model for analyzing and optimizing sparing policies as part of an overall evaluation of the probability of sufficiency for a system configuration. The repair transition parameters are varied to change the state visitation probabilities that drive a change in the probability of sufficiency observed for a given mass allocation. These parameters are optimized using a particle swarm optimizer to identify the preferred strategy for a desired allocation mass.

3D Printing for Space Habitats: Requirements, Challenges, and Recent Advances

Heavily resource-reliant transportation and harsh living conditions, where humans cannot survive without a proper habitat, have prevented humans from establishing colonies on the Moon and Mars. Due to the absence of an atmosphere, potential habitats on the Moon or Mars require thick and strong structures that can withstand artificially produced internal pressure, potential meteoroid strikes, and the majority of incoming radiation. One promising way to overcome the noted challenges is the use of additive manufacturing (AM), also known as 3D printing. It allows producing structures from abundant materials with minimal material manipulation as compared to traditional constructing techniques. In addition to constructing the habitat itself, 3D printing can be utilized for manufacturing various tools that are useful for humans. Recycling used-up tools to compensate for damaged or unfunctional devices is also possible by melting down a tool back into raw material. While space 3D printing sounds good on paper, there are various challenges that still have to be considered for printing-assisted space missions. The conditions in space are drastically different from those on Earth. This includes factors such as the absence of gravity, infinitesimal pressure, and rapid changes in temperature. In this paper, a literature study on the prospects of additive manufacturing in space is presented. There are a variety of 3D printing techniques available, which differ according to the materials that can be utilized, the possible shapes of the final products, and the way solidification of the material occurs. In order to send humans to other celestial bodies, it is important to account for their needs and be able to fulfill them. An overview of requirements for potential space habitats and the challenges that arise when considering the use of additive manufacturing in space are also presented. Finally, current research progress on 3D printing Lunar and Martian habitats and smaller items is reviewed.

Life Cycle Cost Model for Life Support Systems of Crewed Autonomous Transport for Deep Space Habitation

Intelligent transport systems are used in various transport systems, among which a special place is occupied by crewed autonomous transport systems such as space stations for deep space habitation. These objects have a complex and critical requirement for life support systems (LSSs) to maintain safe and habitable conditions for the crew in the isolated environment. This paper explores the different architectural options for life support systems (LSSs) in autonomous transport systems, specifically focusing on space stations. Three alternative LSS architectures are discussed: Open LSS (OLSS), Closed LSS (CLSS), and Mixed LSS (MLSS). Each architecture has its own advantages and disadvantages. OLSS relies on external resource delivery, reducing initial costs but increasing dependence on resupply missions. CLSS operates autonomously, generating resources onboard, but has higher initial costs and technological complexity. MLSS combines external delivery and onboard generation, providing flexibility and adaptability. The material emphasizes the importance of cost-effectiveness analysis at the early stages of design and identifies the boundary values of mission duration that determine the most effective LSS architecture choice. The material highlights the significance of striking the right balance between cost and performance to develop intelligent ecosystems of LSS for space stations and other autonomous transport systems.

Diversity – volume relationships: adding structural arrangement and volume to species – area relationships across forest macrosystems

The species – area relationship (SAR) is a common pattern in which diversity increases with the area sampled, but ecosystems are three‐dimensional (3D) and diversity – volume relationships (DVRs) may exist in ecosystems that vary substantially in their vegetation volume. We tested whether forest vegetation volume, as a 3D extension of area in SARs, was a significant predictor of taxonomic (species) and structural (arrangement) diversity in five groups of organisms across the National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON). Vegetation volume and four structural arrangement metrics within the area of NEON plots were measured using NEON's discrete return lidar. Species richness was measured as the number of species within the respective NEON plot sampling area for understory plants, trees, breeding land birds, small mammals, and ground beetles. We found that volume negatively predicted understory plants and positively predicted tree and beetle species richness across the USA forest macrosystem, but not bird and small mammal species richness. Furthermore, volume was a significant predictor of several metrics that describe the internal and external heterogeneity of vegetation in forests (structural arrangement) within the ecosystem across the USA forest macrosystem. There were several significant within site‐level relationships, but not at all sites, between volume and species richness or structural arrangement in organism groups. Our study indicates that previous work that has focused on a 2D conceptualization of habitat can be expanded to 3D habitat space, but that the strength and the positive or negative direction of DVRs may vary taxonomically or geographically.

Adaptability of space habitats using the Rhythmic Buildings strategy

Space habitats, facing extreme conditions in space and on other planetary bodies, should have redundancy and versatility. Although the main challenges in the field have been identified as changes in gravity, radiation protection, extreme temperatures (fluctuations), changes in daylight patterns, and lack of (or less) atmosphere, more (unknown) challenges will inevitably emerge. Therefore, space habitats should extend beyond redundancy and adapt to their surroundings. There are many adaptability strategies for terrestrial habitats but none of these strategies were developed to work in the extreme conditions of outer space. This paper proposes application of a novel adaptability strategy, the Rhythmic Buildings strategy, which aims to develop buildings that adapt to the rhythms of the building's context (frequency, speed, and intensity of changes occurring on the case study location).The strategy is applied to the case study of a Martian habitat at Jezero Crater. The Rhythmic Buildings strategy includes the Rhythmic Framework and its 33 parameters (such as daylight and outdoor temperature) as well as analytical, technical, and design tools – collectively the Rhythmic Toolbox. First, the Framework tool was used to map the changes in the context following the environmental, economy, and society aspects. The rhythms of the case study context include local temperature, pressure, solar radiation, strong weather events (i.e. storms), but also comfort needs of the crew. These rhythms were then translated into a habitat design using an adapted version of the bubble diagram method.Lastly, novel technologies and materials were selected to address the rhythms which includes adaptive properties of materials. Results of the study show that the context's most important challenges are the daily temperature fluctuations and weekly crew schedule, while the most promising adaptability opportunity lies in the daily daylight rhythm. The design that followed the Rhythmic Buildings strategy directly addresses nine out of the 33 parameters and indirectly addresses a further five parameters. The proposed Martian habitat utilises the rhythms of daily temperature cycles and the 24 h daylight rhythm to reinforce the materials structures. The habitat is adaptive and responsive to its surroundings and the crew's needs. In the discussion, speculations are made on how space architecture can develop itself by intrinsically adapting to the rhythms of the environment and evolve into their own typologies, distinctly different than Earth architecture.

Volume Optimisation of Multi-stable Origami Bellows for Deployable Space Habitats

AbstractOrigami bellows are formed by folding flat sheets into closed cylindrical structures along predefined creases. As the bellows unfold, the volume of the origami structure will change significantly, offering potential for use as inflatable deployable structures. This paper presents a geometric study of the volume of multi-stable Miura-ori and Kresling bellows, focusing on their application as deployable space habitats. Such habitats would be compactly stowed during launch, before expanding once in orbit. The internal volume ratio between different deployed states is investigated across the geometric design space. As a case study, the SpaceX Falcon 9 payload fairing is chosen for the transportation of space habitats. The stowed volume and effective deployed volume of the origami space habitats are calculated to enable comparison with conventional habitat designs. Optimal designs for the deployment of Miura-ori and Kresling patterned tubular space habitats are obtained using particle swarm optimisation (PSO) techniques. Configurations with significant volume expansion can be found in both patterns, with the Miura-ori patterns achieving higher volume expansion due to their additional radial deployment. A multi-objective PSO (MOPSO) is adopted to identify trade-offs between volumetric deployment and radial expansion ratios for the Miura-ori pattern.

The potential of catalysis for closing the loop in human space exploration

This mini-review provides a perspective on how catalysis can contribute to the challenge of human space exploration, i.e. to the establishment of a space habitat on the Moon in the near future and the realization of a journey to Mars in the far future. The role of catalysis for space exploration is reviewed along elemental resource provisions for human life that are based on catalytic chemical processes. As a secondary effect, learning about catalysis under the high constraints of the sustainability requirements inherent to long-term space missions can be beneficial for the advancement of currently developed catalytic processes for a green, circular economy on Earth. In-depth research into catalysis for space applications could therefore also provide answers to urgent industrial, environmental and social sustainability challenges on our planet e.g., as expressed by the United Nations Sustainability Development Goals. Even for today’s short-term space missions, catalysis already plays a key role in the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) on the International Space Station (ISS) and moreover, in fuel and propellant synthesis as well as the recycling of combustion products such as CO2.

H-Matrix BEM application and validation for space habitat

Acoustic requirements for space habitats are stringent and involve a combination of noise sources minimization and public address and general alarm (PAGA) system validation. Simulation solutions are essential for demonstrating compliance requirement as early as possible and continuously throughout the development cycle of the spacecraft. Space habitats' sound field can be computationally challenging to predict in a deterministic manner for most of the audible spectrum as the volume can be important. For this application, an initial PAGA system design assessment was performed using Ray-Tracing, a geometric statistical method, which must be validated using a deterministic method. For validation purpose, the Boundary Element Method (BEM) was chosen for this application. Given the size of the structure and the desired frequency range, the BEM model was very large, containing over 250,000 wetted nodes, and a standard BEM solver required approximately 200GB of RAM. To limit computing hardware constraints, a newly implemented commercially available H-Matrix BEM solver was used. Pressure maps of a PAGA system simulation on a generic space habitat resulting from the Ray-Tracing and H-Matrix BEM solvers are compared to a standard BEM simulation. Results are compared both in terms of accuracy and computational performance, showing the advantages of using multiple simulation methods at various stages of the design.

Quiet Spacecraft Cabin Ventilation Fan Development: Motivation and Context

It is important to control acoustical noise aboard crewed space vehicles and space habitats to provide a satisfactory environment for voice communications, alarm audibility, and restful sleep, and to minimize the risk for hearing loss and annoyance. As with most noise control efforts, it is best to control the noise at the source, and for spaceflight vehicles these are typically the fans associated with the Environmental Control and Life Support system. These include cabin ventilation fans and intermodule ventilation fans, among others. Throughout the history of crewed spaceflight, there have been issues with noise from ventilation fans, going back to Apollo. And, with the spaceflight vehicles and habitats currently being developed, there are again concerns with noise from ventilation fans. To address this problem, NASA is working to leverage the technology developed in its Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate, specifically at the Glenn Research Center, to design highly efficient and quiet fans for reducing community noise levels from civilian aircraft. This paper will discuss the need for transfer of this technology to spaceflight use, and will discuss the potential benefits, which are significant and will be crucial for the successful development and operations of future spaceflight vehicles, space suits, and habitats.

Pseudogravity Ballistic Trajectories

Summary Because prolonged weightlessness has detrimental effects on human physiology, spaceflight experts envision artificial gravity, or pseudogravity, for long-duration space missions and artificial space habitats. This pseudogravity is generated by a constant rotation of the living space, typically a cylinder rotating about its axis. One aspect of this environment that could be disorienting or possibly even dangerous is the behavior of objects whose motion is initiated by being dropped, thrown, or struck, thereafter moving free of any external force (we ignore air resistance). We investigate the resulting pseudogravity ballistic trajectories in a frame of reference that rotates with the cylinder. The surprising and interesting results are greatly clarified by the use of parametric equations in both rectangular and polar coordinates, along with the usual formulations of velocity, acceleration, and curvature.