Space Exploration Activities Research Articles

United Nations Human Space Technology Initiative (HSTI)

The Human Space Technology Initiative was launched in 2010 within the framework of the United Nations Programme on Space Applications implemented by the Office for Outer Space Affairs of the United Nations. It aims to involve more countries in activities related to human spaceflight and space exploration and to increase the benefits from the outcome of such activities through international cooperation, to make space exploration a truly international effort.The role of the Initiative in these efforts is to provide a platform to exchange information, foster collaboration between partners from spacefaring and non-spacefaring countries, and encourage emerging and developing countries to take part in space research and benefit from space applications.The Initiative organizes expert meetings and workshops annually to raise awareness of the current status of space exploration activities as well as of the benefits of utilizing human space technology and its applications. The Initiative is also carrying out primary science activities including the Zero-Gravity Instrument Project and the Drop Tower Experiment Series aimed at promoting capacity-building activities in microgravity science and education, particularly in developing countries.

Politics of Space Law in a Post Cold War Era: Understanding Regime Change

A pattern exists whereby U.S. domestic space law has exhibited a tendency of setting commercialization and privatization trends. Over time, commercialization and privatization processes became the norm for satellite telecommunications, remote sensing, space transportation & launch services, space stations and spaceports. This paper provides an overview of space law from its beginning, through its changes, and today’s new increased private-sector participation. The position taken herein is that something akin to legal precedent is in the process of being established with respect to private space tourism, private space trips, space exploration and other related space activities. Considering this legal trend - from the formation and purpose of the COMSAT Corporation to the recent political and legal issues surrounding the U.S. Orbit Act - this paper entertains possible emerging legal trends which have begun to spark. This includes possible legal implications of the New Vision for Space Exploration Policy, and for space tourism, space mining and space settlements as humankind journeys out to develop the final frontier. This dissertation sets forth the argument that a Gramscian analysis provides a more adequate explanatory framework than the mainstream theories of realism or neoliberal institutionalism as applied to the study of the outer space development regime. Neither theory explains why new actors and new actions are distinctly occurring in outer space development in the post cold War era. It also traces how the legitimation of norms is linked to free market ideology and capitalism’s dominance in the Post Cold War era. A pattern of space lawmaking exists wherein laws are created to support new industries. This situation may be contrary to the purpose of international law.

Research through Design of a One-Dimensional Cable-Rod Deployable Mechanism

With the development of human space exploration activities, the structures of many spacecrafts tend to be large. Due to the limitation of payload envelope size in the launch vehicles, large space structures must be folded in a limited space, and stretch to the desired configuration after reaching their orbits. Large space structures can be basically classified as assembling structures, expansive structures and deployable structures. Deployable structures are the most widely used, and the rod-shaped space stretching arms are the most widely applied one-dimensional space deployment mechanism. Currently, there are mainly three forms of rod-shaped space stretching arms are used in the field of aerospace: Storable Tubular Extendable Member[1,2], Coilable Mast[3], and hinged-rod stretching arm[4,5]. Hinged-rod stretching arm now becomes the studying focus of rod-shaped deployment mechanism for its precise positioning due to high strength and stiffness and characteristics that is in line with the large-scale spatial structure. The designs of a one-dimensional cable-rod deployment mechanism which is cable-driven based on the contrast of working principle and working characteristics of existing rod-shaped space deployment mechanism, and also some research was studied on its working principle and key technologies.

Assessment Study of Small Space Debris Removal by Laser Satellites

Space debris in Earth orbit poses significant danger to satellites, humans in space, and future space exploration activities. In particular, the increasing number of unidentifiable objects, smaller than 10 cm, presents a serious hazard. Numerous technologies have been studied for removing unwanted objects in space. Our approach is based on wireless power transmission technology using a short wavelength laser stationed in orbit to vaporize these small objects or to change the trajectory of space debris. This paper discusses the power requirements for space debris removal using lasers. A short wavelength laser pumped directly or indirectly by solar energy can scan, identify, position, illuminate, and eliminate the target through vaporization process or slow down the orbital speed of debris by laser detonation until it reenters the atmosphere. This feasibility assessment covers roughly the power requirement, laser system, and a potential operational scenario.

Building long-term constituencies for space exploration: The challenge of raising public awareness and engagement in the United States and in Europe

Space exploration is a multifaceted endeavor and will be a “grand challenge” of the 21st century. It has already become an element of the political agenda of a growing number of countries worldwide. However, the public is largely unaware of space exploration activities and in particular does not perceive any personal benefit. In order to achieve highly ambitious space exploration goals to explore robotically and with humans the inner solar system, space agencies must improve and expand their efforts to inform and raise the awareness of the public about what they are doing, and why. Therefore adopting new techniques aiming at informing and engaging the public using participatory ways, new communication techniques to reach, in particular, the younger generation will be a prerequisite for a sustainable long-term exploration program: as they will enable it and carry most of the associated financial burden. This paper presents an environmental analysis of space exploration in the United States and Europe and investigates the current branding stature of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA). We discuss how improved market research and new branding methods can increase public space awareness and improve the image of NASA and ESA. We propose a new participatory approach to engage the public as major stakeholder (along governments, the industrial space sector and the science community) that may provide sufficient resources for and sustainability of a long-term space exploration program.

Potential of virtual worlds for remote space exploration

A brief description is given for the potential of virtual worlds to remote space exploration and other space-related activities. The major characteristics of current virtual worlds are identified. Recent commercial and open source virtual worlds are listed. Some of the current NASA and other space-related applications of virtual worlds are described, along with some of the tools for virtual space exploration. The technologies and facilities needed to transform the 2D flat internet into a 360^o multi-sensory immersive virtual world experience are identified. A vision is described for a remote space exploration ecosystem (RSEE), which incorporate a massively multi-participant immersive synthetic environment and other advanced facilities, for inspiring and motivating the international community about space activities. High-fidelity visual simulations of future space missions in the immersive synthetic environment and virtual world facilities can engage the public and give them the sense of being there. The future of virtual worlds is bright. Its transformative power is likely to impact many facets of future space programs and missions, and support the concept of collaborative participatory virtual space exploration.

A lunar exploration architecture using lunar libration point one

Future space exploration activities very likely will incorporate a large number of human missions to various locations on the Moon surface and other destinations near the Earth–Moon system. A wide range of space infrastructure elements will be required in low Earth orbit and waypoints to these destinations. It is reasonable to start assembly and mission logistics from today's frequently used near-Earth orbits, such as the orbit of the International Space Station (ISS). This allows for using launch systems and other infrastructure elements currently available in order to reduce costs. Besides new transfer, ascent and re-entry vehicles as well as planetary surface installations, space stations beyond low Earth orbit, namely in the Earth–Moon system, can be crucial elements for forthcoming exploration missions. The lunar Lagrange points have unique advantages in this context and offer promising options for the humans' next steps into space. As shown in this paper, a lunar space station (LSS) is not too farfetched; and it is definitely not science fiction but rather the next logical step for solar system exploration. Like a stepping-stone, it could enable the immediate start of sustained development of outer space with technologies available today. The proposed lunar exploration architecture targets at an LSS at the lunar Lagrange point 1 to be used as a gateway for mid-term lunar surface exploration missions or servicing missions to other destinations. For study purposes the challenging constraint of only using existing and tailored infrastructure elements and technology of European/Russian heritage is assumed. The results manifest the feasibility of such a space station between 2015 and 2020. Presented are station configuration and modules, transfer vehicles for assembly, crew and cargo transport, an enhanced life support system and a logistics concept. The concept outlines enhancements of the current transportation and station infrastructure and shows that the ISS as a transportation node can beneficially support lunar scenarios.

Interaction challenges in human-robot space exploration

In January 2004, NASA established a new, long-term exploration program to fulfill the President's Vision for U.S. Space Exploration. The primary goal of this program is to establish a sustained human presence in space, beginning with robotic missions to the Moon in 2008, followed by extended human expeditions to the Moon as early as 2015. In addition, the program places significant emphasis on the development of joint human-robot systems. A key difference from previous exploration efforts is that future space exploration activities must be sustainable over the long-term. Experience with the space station has shown that cost pressures will keep astronaut teams small. Consequently, care must be taken to extend the effectiveness of these astronauts well beyond their individual human capacity. Thus, in order to reduce human workload, costs, and fatigue-driven error and risk, intelligent robots will have to be an integral part of mission design.

The US civil space sector: alternate futures

The initiation of a new vision for exploration, as articulated by US President George W. Bush on 14 January 2004, has excited much interest. This article analyzes the dynamics and potential for changes in the processes and participants in future space policy and space exploration activities. It examines a range of possible alternative paths for NASA and the US government's space exploration activities, the international space community and the private sector in the articulation and pursuit of future space exploration endeavors. It concludes that the new vision for exploration brings about both an opportunity and indeed a necessity for movement towards new and innovative methods and institutions for the effective conduct of multidimensional and multilateral space exploration activities in the future.

Chemical Classification of Space Debris

Abstract Space debris, here referring to all non‐operating orbital objects, has steadily increased in number so that it has become a potential barrier to the exploration of space. The ever‐increasing number of space debris pieces in space has created an increasingly threatening hazard to all on‐the‐orbit spacecraft, and all future space exploration activities have to be designed and operated with respect to the increasing threat posed by space debris. Generally, space debris is classified as large, medium and small debris pieces based on their sizes. The large debris piece is easily catalogued, but medium to small debris pieces are very difficult to track and also quite different in damage mechanisms from the large ones. In this paper, a scheme of chemical classification of space debris is developed. In our scheme, the first‐order classification is employed to divide space debris into two groups: natural micrometeoroids and artificial space debris. The second‐order classification is based on their chemical patterns and compositions. The natural micrometeoroids are further divided into three types, namely mafic, metal and phyllosilicate micrometeorites, while the artificial space debris is divided into seven types, which are polymers, non‐metal debris, metals and their alloys, oxides, sulphides and their analogs, halides and carbides. Of the latter seven types, some can also be further divided into several sub‐types. Chemical classification of space debris is very useful for the study of the chemical damage mechanism of small debris pieces, and also is of great significance in constraining the origin and source of space debris and assessing their impact on spacecraft and human space activities.

Analysis of parking orbits and transfer trajectories for mission design of cis-lunar space stations

Future human space exploration activities will very likely incorporate space stations and platforms located in the Earth–Moon system, in particular in lunar orbit or in the Lagrange points. It is reasonable to start assembly and mission logistics from today's frequently used near-Earth orbits, such as the ISS orbit, in order to utilize common launcher systems and other infrastructure elements. This contribution deals with the conceptual design of cis-lunar space missions and presents results based on analytic analysis as well as numerical trajectory computation taking gravitational perturbations of multiple celestial bodies into account. While analytic methods generate data suitable for initial estimates and general assessments on delta-v and transfer time for rather fast trajectories, the selected approach also covers long transfer time missions and allows direct and easy access to other relevant mission parameters. The report gives an overview of the perturbation shares in various orbits and trajectories in Earth vicinity and along in and outbound lunar transfers. Then, it addresses the long-term evolution of selected Earth-bound orbits that are likely to be used as staging or parking locations (on the way to and from the Moon). A summary of results is included on how these orbits are being altered by perturbations over time and consequential impacts on mission parameters like delta-v, transfer time and periods for preferable in- and outbound transfer window periods.

Rationale and systems architecture for a near-term human lunar return

Early human missions to the Moon have landed on six different sites on the lunar surface. These have all been in the low-latitude regions of the near side of the Moon. Early missions were designed primarily to assure crew safety rather than for scientific value. While the later missions added increasingly more challenging science, they remained restricted to near-side, low-latitude sites. Since the 1970s, we have learned considerably more about lunar planetology and resources. A return within the next five to ten years can greatly stimulate future human space exploration activities. We can learn much more about the distribution of lunar resources, especially about hydrogen, hydrated minerals, and water ice because they appear to be abundant near the lunar poles. The presence of hydrogen opens the possibility of industrial use of lunar resources to provide fuel for space transportation throughout the solar system. This paper discusses the rationale for near-term return of human crews to the Moon, and the advantages to be gained by selecting the Moon as the next target for human missions beyond low-Earth orbit. It describes a systems architecture for early missions, including transportation and habitation aspects. Specifically, we describe a primary transportation architecture that emphasizes existing Earth-to-orbit transportation systems, using expendable launch vehicles for cargo delivery and the Space Shuttle and its derivatives for human transportation. Transfer nodes should be located at the International Space Station (ISS) and at the Earth-Moon L1 (libration point). Each of the major systems is described, and the requisite technology readiness is assessed. These systems include Earth-to-orbit transportation, lunar transfer, lunar descent and landing, surface habitation and mobility, and return to Earth. With optimum reliance on currently existing space systems and a technology readiness assessment, we estimate the minimum development time required and perform order-of-magnitude cost estimates of a near-term human lunar mission.

Man's future in space

No single pressure is forcing mankind to take the first steps toward space, but rather a large number of pressures, some effective for one group of people and others effective for others, provide the motivation. The military objectives are clear. Satellites offer an opportunity for continuous high quality surveillance, for defense systems in orbit to counter ballistic missiles, and for bases in space. The moon offers sites for retaliatory weapons that cannot be destroyed from earth without great difficulty and several days’ time. The scientific objectives are equally clear. Our knowledge of the universe of which we are a part is beginning to grow more rapidly as we cease to be earth-bound. Astronomy will leap forward with the first telescopes in space, as will biology with the first investigations of life on Mars. Geology and cosmology will increase their strides when the moon, the asteroids, and the planets are explored first hand. Beyond the military and scientific motives, which are somewhat limited in appeal although they affect powerful groups in our society, lie other motives of wider appeal. The competitive desire to excel, to lead, to keep national prestige high, is effective. Curiosity, the need for excitement, response to the challenge of the difficult and the unknown, the desire for adventure and a taste of danger, impels some to participate actively and many to participate vicariously. These human attributes, of doing whatever can be done, learning whatever can be learned, overcoming whatever obstacles can be overcome, should not be minimized. The economic motives for exploring and exploiting space are of growing importance. Weather observation and longdistance communication are even now beginning to be undertaken by satellites, because better and cheaper results can be obtained. Rocket, satellite and space exploration activities already are a significant and growing factor in the economies of several countries. Our rapidly developing ability to utilize power for propulsion is bringing us the means for satisfying our military, scientific, human, and economic aspirations for conquering space. The past century has seen the progressive develop

Novel approaches to cellular transplantation from the U.S. Space Program.

Research in the treatment of type I diabetes is entering a new era that takes advantage of our knowledge in an ever increasing variety of scientific disciplines. Some may originate from very diverse sources, one of which is the Space Program at National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The Space Program contributes to diabetes-related research in several treatment modalities. As an ongoing effort for medical monitoring of personnel involved in space exploration activities NASA and the extramural scientific community investigate strategies for noninvasive estimation of blood glucose levels. Part of the effort in the space protein crystal growth program is high-resolution structural analysis insulin as a means to understand the interaction with its receptor and with host immune components and as a basis for rational design of a better insulin molecule. The Space Program is also developing laser technology for potential early cataract detection as well as a noninvasive analyses for addressing preclinical diabetic retinopathy. Finally, NASA developed an exciting cell culture system that affords some unique advantages in the propagation and maintenance of mammalian cells in vitro. The cell culture system was originally designed to maintain cell suspensions with a minimum of hydrodynamic and mechanical sheer while awaiting launch into microgravity. Currently the commercially available NASA bioreactor (Synthecon, Inc., Houston, TX) is used as a research tool in basic and applied cell biology. In recent years there is continued strong interest in cellular transplantation as treatment for type I diabetes. The advantages are the potential for successful long-term amelioration and a minimum risk for morbidity in the event of rejection of the transplanted cells. The pathway to successful application of this strategy is accompanied by several substantial hurdles: (1) isolation and propagation of a suitable uniform donor cell population; (2) management of host immune rejection; (3) protection from the autoimmune component of the disease; and (4) anatomic placement of the engrafted cells that permits timely response to blood sugar levels as well as effective release and deployment of insulin. Bioreactor technology may provide some critical advances for surmounting some of these scientific hurdles. The NASA bioreactor is a horizontally rotating cylinder that is completely filled with culture medium. Gaseous exchange is maintained by a concentric cylinder of permeable silicon. In slow rotation (15-25 rpm) particles of small mass such as cells and tissue aggregates remain suspended in the rotating body of fluid. This novel approach suspends cells without stirring thus, allowing objects of different size mass to colocate and interact in a very low shear environment. In fact, analysis of the forces acting on individual cells in the rotating bioreactor reveals that the cells are continuously falling through the fluid medium. The conditions in the bioreactor permit assembly of cells into aggregates. three-dimensional tissue growth, synthesis of intercellular matrix,10 differentiation, and some sinusoid formations that may serve as a surrogate vasculature for larger tissue segments.

Perspective on the Impact of Weightlessness on Calcium and Bone Metabolism

As humans venture into space to colonize the moon and travel to distant planets in the 21st century, they will be confronted with a bone disease that could potentially limit their space exploration activities or put them at risk for fracture when they return to earth. It is now recognized that an unloading of the skeleton, either due to strict bed rest or in zero gravity, leads on average to a 1%–2% reduction in bone mineral density at selected skeletal sites each month. The mechanism by which unloading of the skeleton results in rapid mobilization of calcium stores from the skeleton is not fully understood, but it is thought to be related to down regulation in PTH and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 production. Bone modeling and mineralization in chick embryos is not affected by microgravity, suggesting that bone cells adapt and ultimately become addicted to gravity in order to maintain a structurally sound skeleton. Strategies need to be developed to decrease microgravity-induced bone resorption by either mimicking gravity’s effect on bone metabolism, or enhancing physically or pharmacologically bone formation in order to preserve astronauts’ bone health.

Space exploration policy: Towards an operational vision

This article examines the historical and social context of space exploration policy. It seeks to reconcile a contradiction between the visionary grandeur of space and public perceptions of space exploration as the province of a narrowly-focused political interest group. The author argues that perceptions of the space age are artificially restricted by dating its origins to Sputnik and Apollo and allowing it to be dominated by science and technology objectives devoid of a more encompassing social framework. Guiding principles for developing space exploration activities in a broader conceptual and operational framework are offered.

Space exploration in China

Abstract In this report the Secretary General of the Chinese Academy of Space Technology's Science and Technology Commission outlines his country's space exploration activities to date, describes plans for the next decade and proposes a framework for international cooperation in the exploration of Mars.