Space Age Research Articles

Chapter 10: Planetary Protection-History, Science, and the Future.

Planetary protection is a principle in the design of interplanetary missions that aims to prevent biological cross contamination between the target body and Earth. Planetary protection policies and procedures have worked to mitigate forward contamination (from Earth) and back contamination (to Earth) since the beginning of the space age. Today, planetary protection policy is guided by international agreements, nongovernmental advisory councils, and national space agencies. The landscape of planetary protection science and policy is changing rapidly, as new technologies, crewed missions to Mars and the Moon, and even orbital settlements are being developed. Space exploration, whether specifically targeted toward questions in astrobiology or not, must consider planetary protection concerns to minimize contamination that poses a risk to both astrobiological investigations as well as Earth's biosphere. In this chapter, we provide an introduction to and overview of the history, motivations, and implementation of planetary protection in the United States.

Does the Heart Age Faster in Space?

Living in space is not as simple as living on Earth. The environment in space is harmful for humans. Astronauts experience weightlessness and are exposed to dangerous radiation. On top of that, astronauts live in a tiny area, far from their loved ones. All our organs are harmed by these factors. The heart, for example, starts to age much quicker in space than on Earth. This means that astronauts have a higher risk of heart disease after going to space. It is therefore important that we investigate why this happens so that we can prevent it. In the past, these studies were based on experiments using animals or humans. Today, we can create mini-hearts in the lab for our experiments instead. In this article, we will explain how we make mini-hearts and how they help us understand and prevent the heart’s aging in space.

Generic and Cost effective framework for Space Threat Assessment for Emerging Space Economies

Modern-day satellites can be considered mini-computers orbiting the earth, with their own operating systems, customized software, navigation and processing units, in-built memory, and other optical and communication capabilities. Gone are the days when satellites were huge in size, with systems and sub-systems taking several months to a few years to be manufactured, assembled, tested, and launched depending on the mission. A wide variety of technological developments in the past decades, including miniaturization of systems and subsystems, availability of space-qualified and commercially-off-the-shelf (COTS) components, and the advent of application-specific integrated chips (ASICs) have paved the way for an increase in quantity and quality of space-based systems, thereby enabling a wide variety of missions even for emerging space economies. With the growing number and complexity of satellites, there have been multiple recorded instances of attacks that have happened on space and ground-based systems over the last three decades. For example, in 1986, the Galaxy I satellite uplink was disrupted by a suspicious person from Florida under the pseudonym "Captain Midnight". In 1997, computers belonging to the X-ray astrophysics section of the Goddard Space Flight Center campus were compromised. In 1998, the ROSAT X-RAY satellite co-owned by the United States and Germany was hacked. One of the satellites from the military communication system Skynet - owned and operated by the UK's Royal Air Force was hacked. As we enter the space age, it is important to note that many countries, including underdeveloped nations, utilize satellites for various earth-based and space-based applications, military recon missions, interplanetary missions, and all other types of space exploration. Given the extent of utilization, it is crucial to tackle the threats facing space-based and ground-based systems. Some developed and space-faring nations like the USA, Russia, China, the UK, etc., have counter-space capabilities at present to tackle a wide variety of threats. On the other hand, countries like India, Iran, Australia, New Zealand, and UAE, which are still new or emerging players in the new space industry, are still developing their systems to be robust enough to tackle space-based and ground-based threats. At the farther end are countries like Mongolia, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Norway, etc., which are still developing their space capabilities. In this concise abstract, we present an overview of the myriad security threats encountered by both space-based and ground-based systems. Additionally, we introduce a generic and cost-effective threat assessment framework designed to evaluate these threats across diverse scenarios. This mission-agnostic framework, along with its brief methodology, serves as a foundational tool for identifying security vulnerabilities and formulating comprehensive risk mitigation strategies tailored to specific missions. In the subsequent full-length article, we delve deeper into the complexities of space security, exploring real-world examples, emerging challenges, and innovative solutions.

A Theory of Gravitational Generation to Mitigate Space-Induced Low Gravity – Relevance to Premature Aging in Space

Artificial gravity is among the key goals for successful long-term space exploration. Over the last century, several possible theoretical models have been proposed. As far as we are aware, use of centrifugal rotation is the only major form of artificial gravity that has been significantly tested. There are disadvantages to this system including the high degree of speed needed to produce a force to recapitulate earth’s gravitational field. We tested the potential efficacy of diamagnetic levitation as a form of artificial gravity. This study capitalized on its unique capacity to uphold desired aesthetic attributes while adjusting gravitational forces per specific conditional requirements. The model emphasized on methods by which diamagnetic levitation negate the detrimental consequences of prolonged weightlessness on human physiology, leading to premature age. By offering a detailed exploration of the potential of diamagnetic levitation and its implications, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of the critical role of the potential for artificial gravity on long-term visit to space. The findings and insights presented herein serve as a valuable resource for future space missions and the development of space habitation technologies, guiding interdisciplinary scientists towards the realization of safer, healthier, and more sustainable human ventures beyond earth’s confines. We discussed the positive impact on premature aging for long-term habitation in space.

Can Residents Access Leisure Spaces in Our City: Investigating the Leisure Space Distribution in Seoul, South Korea

The preferred spaces for leisure activities across all age groups in Seoul, South Korea, and the age inclusiveness of leisure spaces during the COVID-19 were investigated. The accessibility and distribution preferences for leisure facilities of different generations are investigated as aspects of leisure space age inclusiveness. One-way ANOVA, correlation analysis, boxplot analysis, and GIS mapping were applied. The cost, time, and importance of leisure significantly differ by generation. Additionally, leisure space preferences differ by age group. A discrepancy in the distribution of age-inclusive leisure spaces by generation and district is revealed. The land value of a district relates to the distribution of age-inclusive leisure space. Planners and policymakers can use these findings to promote socially age-inclusive communities that support ‘aging in place’ and leisure spaces for all generations, thereby promoting the health of all residents. However, it is essential to note that this study has limitations arising from the COVID-19.

A Review of Environmental Challenges Facing Martian Colonisation and the Potential for Terrestrial Microbes to Transform a Toxic Extraterrestrial Environment

Mars is a focus of New Space Age exploration and colonisation, but there are significant challenges to successful colonisation by humankind. Environmental microbes play a key role in supporting the ecosystems of Earth, especially within the biodegradation and bioremediation sectors. However, the repurposed roles of microbes on Mars and their associated uses to colonists remain incompletely defined. The aim of this review was to examine the key roles of microbes on Earth and how they have been employed by humans to tackle four pivotal environmental challenges associated with the colonisation of Mars, namely the physical environment, the creation of a hospitable environment via terraforming, environmental sustainability and life support, and finally, renewable processing technologies. Some species of microbes were found to be tolerant of the ever-changing physical environment on Mars (freeze–thaw and UVC exposure) making them useful for bioremediation applications. Employing perchlorate-remediating microbes for their ability to bioremediate the soils of sodium perchlorate, which is present in Martian soils, in addition to their innate ability to cycle nutrients through the biosphere showed promise in establishing sustained crops to support colonists. The employment of terrestrial environmental microbes is a necessary part of overcoming key environmental challenges to successfully colonise Mars. Without this, future New Space exploration is unlikely to be successful.

Intraoperative Facial Nerve Involvement in Parotid Tumours - A Retrospective Analysis in a Tertiary Care Centre.

The study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the various malignant and benign parotid tumours and evaluate the predictive factors for intraoperative nerve involvement leading to facial palsy (FP). It is a single-centre retrospective analysis for reviewing the involvement of facial nerve in post- parotidectomy patients. The clinical database from January 2012 to December 2020 was included in the study with a follow-up period of a minimum of 2 years. To maintain homogeneity, all squamous cell carcinomas of level 2 nodes involving parotid or residual/recurrent disease of the oral cavity requiring parotid dissection were excluded. A total of 248 patients (171 benign; 77 malignant) were evaluated with a mean age of 46.48 ± 10.76 years. The presence of malignancy increases the risk of FP (p = 0.027). 37 (14.92%) patients with FP were detected which included 34 with partial [32.35% in malignant; 62.16% in recurrent pleomorphic adenoma (RPA)] and 3 with total paralysis (66.67% in malignant; 33.33% in RPA). The recurrence of pleomorphic adenoma increases FP. While old age, larger size, hard fixed swelling with masseteric space (MS) infiltration appeared as risk factors for FP in malignant tumours (p = 0.047; p = 0.004; p < 0.00001 respectively). Tumour size, malignancy, hard fixed mass, masseteric space infiltration, recurrence, and age > 45yrs have been statistically significant predictive factors for intraoperative facial nerve involvement leading to FP. The study also revealed that FP occurred more commonly when there was concurrent involvement of both superficial and deep lobes but was not statistically significant.

Diacylglycerol kinase is downregulated in the Drosophila Seizure Mutant during Spaceflight

Abstract Accelerated aging in space is detrimental to long-term space missions. The environmental conditions in space (e.g., microgravity and radiation) cause harmful effects similar to those seen during aging. As the mechanistic pathways underlying accelerated aging in spaceflight are not fully understood, the identification of critical targets for promoting longevity in spaceflight remains challenging. We analyzed genomics data from the GLDS-207 project to identify potential targets related to longevity. Analysis of RNA-seq data from four Drosophila variants using the GeneLab Galaxy platform indicated that spaceflight significantly affected differential gene expression in the heads of flies, specifically in the seizure (sei) mutant, which alters the voltage gated potassium channels in the cell membrane. Spaceflight induced a significant decrease in the expression of the retinal degeneration A gene (rdgA) in mutant flies that survived the 30-day space mission. This gene encodes for the protein diacylglycerol kinase (DGK), which modulates the activation of the mechanistic target of the rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway, known to negatively regulate aging. Therefore, DGK may be a potential target for promoting longevity in space conditions. Further investigation of the effects of decreased rdgA expression on the lifespan of other organisms under spaceflight conditions will clarify the role of DGK in promoting longevity.

The Emerging Commercial Space Age: Legal and Policy Implications

The Emerging Commercial Space Age: Legal and Policy Implications

Effectiveness of Heatwave Emergency Alert Messages through Analysis of Floating Population

Heatwave emergency alert messages (EAM) not only provide objective information on heatwave occurrences but also include behavioral guidelines, such as avoiding outdoor activities or going out to respond to heatwaves and minimize damage. To investigate the EAM's effectiveness, we analyzed the changes in the floating population during 2021 using Seoul dong-unit and hourly location-based mobile big data. We also examined what socioeconomic and physical environmental characteristics could cause differences in the effectiveness, focusing on the fact that EAM may have different effects depending on regional factors. The findings revealed a notable reduction in the overall floating population of Seoul, ranging from 0.1 to 3.4%. When examined by region, an average decrease of 2.4 to 5.6% was observed, indicating the different effects of EAM by region. Further analysis of regional characteristics highlighted that areas with low EAM effectiveness were characterized by a lower ratio of senior residents, higher employment concentration, and higher accessibility to public transportation. Additionally, the number of household members, gender distribution, average age, and presence of green spaces can contribute to the gap in the effectiveness of EAM between regions.

POTENTIAL FOR THE SPACE SOLAR ENERGY SECTOR DEVELOPMENT IN COMPLIANCE WITH THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES

The subject of the research is the history and peculiarities of the exploration and use of space by governmental institutions and private and commercial entities, which, with the beginning of the space age, has created several significant threats to the further development of humanity, due to non-compliance with the principles of sustainable development. The research methodology is based on reports, guidelines, statistical databases and forecasts of integration groups, specialised governmental and international institutions and their structural units for the study and control of space debris (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, European Space Agency, United Nations), as well as the results of research by private companies in the space solar energy sector. The purpose of the paper is to analyse trends in the sustainable development of a globalised society in compliance with the principles of responsible use of outer space and to assess the potential of the space solar energy sector to ensure the sustainability of the competitive position of the world's economies. In today's environment, competitiveness and investment in high-tech industries are the driving forces of development that can lead to a country's transition to a fundamentally new level of development. The issue of efficient use of outer space encourages states to search for new technological opportunities for economic growth and inclusive development. Conclusion. The authors have analysed the trends in the use of space, the prospects for sustainable development of the space economy, its impact on the planet's ecosystem, and the main policy directions to help governments take the necessary measures for long-term planning to achieve sustainable and inclusive development. The publication examines space activities related to space debris reduction policies and sustainable solar energy production from space. The authors of the research developed guidelines for space debris mitigation and considered the benefits of using space solar energy.

NEIGHBORHOODS AS A SPACE AND PLACE FOR HEALTHY AGING: NOVEL APPROACHES AND A VIEW OF THE FUTURE

Abstract The importance of neighborhood environments for health outcomes has gained increasing recognition in the past two decades. Both space (physical environment) and place (social environment) have implications for health behaviors and risk for acute events and chronic diseases. This symposium brings together a series of talks that address space (walkability, physical activity destinations) and place (racial and socioeconomic polarization) for falls and fear of falling (Pam Dunlap), physical activity behaviors (Pat Donahue), and blood pressure (Hoda Magid). The talks also advance methodology and conceptualization of space and place through use of novel exposure measurements (e.g., Google StreetView audits, spatial polarization) and more nuanced characterization of outcomes (e.g., considering risk stratification and various behavioral aspects of physical activity). Finally, we end with two talks demonstrating ways to advance methods, including the use of longitudinal data to understand long-term neighborhood exposures in relation to outcomes in older adults (Michael Desjardins) and incorporation of novel measures into existing cohorts (Jana Hirsch). These talks leverage data from a diverse range of studies including long-standing cohorts (CHS, MESA), an intervention trial, and VA nursing home data. Together, these talks further our understanding of how neighborhood environments relate to health at older ages and demonstrate the ways in which the field can advance our conceptualization of space and place as both barriers and promoters of health. Yvonne Michael will lead a discussion with the panel and audience on future directions and methodological needs for the field.

The evolution of lunar communication—From the beginning to the present

SummaryThe Moon is the closest celestial body to the Earth. The examination and discovery of this planet have always played an important role in the history of humanity. Since the beginning of the space age, the Moon has been the target of many missions from the 1950s to the present day. Radio communication plays a fundamental role in space vehicle projects because this is the most obvious way to communicate with the ground station and transmit control commands and scientific data. From the early missions to the present day, Earth–Moon communication had many stages of development. In our article, we review this progress and then present the state‐of‐the‐art ideas related to the present missions through the missions currently underway and those planned for the near future. Our primary objective is to describe the radio communication relay services planned for orbit around the Moon. Furthermore, we present the European Space Agency (ESA)‐supported lunar missions, highlighting the Lunar Geology Orbiter (LUGO) mission. Finally, as a future perspective, we present the possibilities of optical communication in the Earth–Moon path, which can result a significant increase in capacity.

Analyses of Equatorward Auroral Extensions during the Extreme Geomagnetic Storm on 15 July 1959

Abstract Intense solar eruptions occasionally trigger extreme geomagnetic storms, expand the boundaries of the auroral oval, and facilitate equatorward extensions of the auroral visibility. It is important to analyse such events, to better understand the extremity of space weather and its impact on the technological infrastructure of the modern civilization. However, unlike other extreme geomagnetic storms, little is known about the auroral activity associated with the extreme geomagnetic storm on 15/16 July 1959, the second largest geomagnetic storm in the space age. This study acquired and analysed two Chinese accounts and one Russian account of auroral visibility at low (≤40°) magnetic latitudes (MLATs). These records allowed us to conservatively reconstruct the equatorward boundaries of the auroral visibility and the auroral oval at 27.4° MLAT and 35.4° invariant latitude, respectively. Our analysis chronologically contextualized these auroral records slightly before the peak of the extreme geomagnetic storm. Moreover, their coloration indicates the excitations of, at least, nitrogen at 427.8 nm and oxygen at 557.7 nm at these low MLATs. Our results allow us to contextualize this extreme geomagnetic storm within other extreme events, based on the equatorward boundary of the auroral oval, thereby facilitating the improvement in existing empirical models for correlations of the auroral extension and the storm intensity.

Cancer and circulatory disease risks for the largest solar particle events in the space age

In this paper we use the NASA Space Cancer Risk (NSCR version 2022) model to predict cancer and circulatory disease risks using energy spectra representing the largest SPE's observed in the space age. Because tissue dose-rates behind shielding for large SPE's lead to low dose-rates (<0.2 Gy/h) we consider the integrated risk for several historical periods of high solar activity, including July–November, 1960 events and August–October 1989 events along with the February 1956 and August 1972 events. The galactic cosmic ray (GCR) contribution to risks is considered in predictions. Results for these largest historical events show risk of exposure induced death (REID) are mitigated to < 1.2 % with a 95 % confidence interval with passive radiation shielding of 20 g/cm2 aluminum, while larger amounts would support the application of the ALARA principle. Annual GCR risks are predicted to surpass the risks from large SPEs by ∼30 g/cm2 of aluminum shielding.

Information security in the space age: Britain’s Skynet satellite communications program and the evolution of modern command and control networks

ABSTRACT Britain initiated its Skynet satellite communications program in 1966 to provide assured connectivity with its forces across the world. Using recently declassified documents, this article reframes the history of British space activities by elucidating how the requirements for flexible and secure defense communications shaped U.K. space policy during the Cold War. Although Skynet inaugurated a communications revolution, it was the product of the longstanding British priority of possessing global information networks under sovereign control. In the Space Age, however, Britain had to reconcile its desire for an autonomous satellite communications network with the reality that American assistance was vital.

THE CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL LIABILITY FOR DAMAGE CAUSED BY SPACE OBJECTS FROM THE HUMAN RIGHTS PERSPECTIVE – SELECTED ASPECTS

In spite of the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects being in force for a long time, it has not as yet been analysed from a human rights perspective. While at the beginning of the space age activities in space were associated only with states, the progress on humankind in the conquest of space has significantly changed that. Nowadays, the role of individuals in space operations is growing. The well-established human rights law on Earth also needs to be reflected in regulations concerning outer space. This paper assesses selected aspects of the Convention from the human rights perspective. The analysis encompasses the definition of “damage” along with the possible amount of compensation due to individuals and the different aspects of procedural guarantees available for them. The paper presents two possible routes for obtaining compensation: one through diplomatic channels and another using national channels of launching states. This study offers a de lege ferenda proposal to appeal to state parties to introduce internal regulations aimed at avoiding human rights infringements. Domestic law systems may create legal provisions that may fill the gaps caused by the Convention’s limitations, e.g. by introducing an appropriate insurance system for space passengers.

Medial Knee Joint Space in Relation to Joint Function and Early Knee Pain in 20-45-Year Adults: A Cross Sectional Study.

Anterior knee pain is very common in the young and active age groups but there are no significant studies on the normal population. Therefore, the objective of the study was to understand the relation between medial knee joint space to the development of knee pain and functional disability with special reference to the 20-45-year age group. 250 cases with mean age of 36.36years presenting with knee pain for at least 1month were included in this prospective study (July 2021 and June 2022) and were asked to self-complete questionnaires on knee pain which included KNEST, AKPQ, VAS and IPAQ. Patients underwent X-rays of bilateral knees in AP view with weight bearing and then medial and lateral knee joint spaces were calculated. There was a higher incidence of knee pain in women compared to men. The average medial and lateral joint space widths (MJSW and LJSW) of the right knee were 4.22mm and 4.57mm, respectively. For the left knee it was 4.19mm and 4.42mm, respectively. There is a decrease in MJSW with increasing age, level of pain and BMI. Also, with an increase in physical activity, there was a higher incidence of knee pain. Overuse injuries are the main cause of knee pain in this age group. There is a significant association between medial joint space width and age, gender, level of pain, and BMI. Rising BMI patterns at a young age, leads to an increase in physical activity, which in turn leads to early knee pain and also predisposes to osteoarthritis.

Public Opinion of Commercial Space Exploration

ABSTRACT Utilizing data from a representative survey of Americans, this paper aims to understand who supports commercial space exploration. The findings show parallels to trends previously identified in who supports space exploration. In addition to confirming that knowledge about commercial space is relatively low to non-existent, the data also indicate that respondents do not believe that human spaceflight should be carried out entirely by private actors. Though typical demographic markers associated with support for space exploration, including gender, age, education, and income are identified here as being important, the data indicate that knowledge of commercial space activities is a key mediator for their influence, thereby identifying a key causal mechanism involved in the formation of individual opinion on commercial space that may also be applicable to other elements of public opinion-space studies.

Prevalence of Fecal Incontinence in Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus: A Prospective Evaluation of 100 Patients

Normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) is a frequent disease in elderly patients. The main symptoms are gait disturbance, urine incontinence, and cognitive decline. Fecal urgency and incontinence are described as rare additional symptoms; however, no exact numbers are known. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of fecal disturbances in NPH patients. Patients who presented to our department with confirmed diagnosis of NPH between January and December 2021 were interviewed prospectively about fecal function. Additionally, the extent of gait disturbance, cognitive decline, ventriculomegaly (EvansIndex), disproportionate enlarged subarachnoid space hydrocephalus (DESH presence), age, gender, and length of history were documented. In those who were operated with a hydrocephalus shunt postoperative development of stool incontinence was followed up. One hundred patients were evaluated (67 males, 33 females, medium age 77.5years, medium Evans Index: 0.37; 87 with disproportionate enlarged subarachnoid space hydrocephalus). 97 patients showed gait disturbance, 84 cognitive decline, and 87 bladder dysfunctions. 78 patients had the complete Hakim triad. 32 patients complained about fecal incontinence (20 with urge incontinence, 12 with complete incontinence). Twenty nine patients were shunted, of which 17 (57%) recovered completely, 9 (31%) partially, and 3 (10%) did not show any change. Fecal urgency and incontinence is a frequent finding in NPH (32%) and is essential for the quality of life. In the general population, fecal incontinence in elderly is found in up to 15%. The more than two-fold higher prevalence in NPH patients and the high percentage of postshunted improvement suggests that NPH causes often directly fecal disturbance.